A BOOK OF THE BEGINNINGS

[2] [De Situ Orbis., bk. 3.2. 'Sequitur Galliae latus alterum, cujus ora, primo nihil progressa in altum, mox tantumdem paene in pelagus excedens, quantum retro Hispania abscesserat, Cantabricis fit adversa terris, et grandi circuitu amflexa, ad Occidentem litus advertit. Tunc ad Septemtriones conversa, iterum longo rectoque tractu ad ripas Rheni amnis expanditur. Terra est frumenti praecipue ac pabuli ferax, et amoena lucis [immanibus.] Quidquid ex satis frigoris impatiens est, aegre, nec ubique, alit; salubris, et noxio genere animalium minime frequens. Gentes superbae, superstitiosae, aliquando etiam immanes adeo, ut hominem optimam et gratissimam Diis victimam caederent. Manent vestigia feritatis jam abolitae; atque, ut ab ultimis caedibus temperant, ita nihilominus, ubi devotos altaribus admovêre, delibant. Habent tamen et facundiam suam, magistroque sapientiae Druidas. Hi terrae mundique magnitudinem et formam, motus coeli ac siderum, et, quid Dii velint, scire profitentur. Docent multa nobilissimos gentis clam et diu, vicenis annis, aut in specu aut in abditis saltibus. Unum ex his, quae praecipiunt, in vulgus effluxit (videlicet ut forent ad bella meliores), aeternas esse animas, vitamque alteram ad Manes. Itaque cum mortuis cremant ac defodiunt apta viventibus. Olim negotiorum ratio etiam, et exactio crediti, deferebatur ad inferos: erantque, qui se in rogos suorum, velut unâ victuri, libenter immitterent.']

[4] [Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, bk. 6.13. 'Throughout all Gaul there are two orders of those men who are of any rank and dignity: for the commonality is held almost in the condition of slaves, and dares to undertake nothing of itself, and is admitted to no deliberation. The greater part, when they are pressed either by debt, or the large amount of their tributes, or the oppression of the more powerful, give themselves up in vassalage to the nobles, who possess over them the same rights without exception as masters over their slaves. But of these two orders, one is that of the Druids, the other that of the knights. The former are engaged in things sacred, conduct the public and the private sacrifices, and interpret all matters of religion. To these a large number of the young men resort for the purpose of instruction, and they [the Druids] are in great honour among them. For they determine respecting almost all controversies, public and private; and if any crime has been perpetrated, if murder has been committed, if there be any dispute about an inheritance, if any about boundaries, these same persons decide it; they decree rewards and punishments; if any one, either in a private or public capacity, has not submitted to their decision, they interdict him from the sacrifices. This among them is the most heavy punishment. Those who have been thus interdicted are esteemed in the number of the impious and the criminal: all shun them, and avoid their society and conversation, lest they receive some evil from their contact; nor is justice administered to them when seeking it, nor is any dignity bestowed on them. Over all these Druids one presides, who possesses supreme authority among them. Upon his death, if any individual among the rest is pre-eminent in dignity, he succeeds; but, if there are many equal, the election is made by the suffrages of the Druids; sometimes they even contend for the presidency with arms. These assemble at a fixed period of the year in a consecrated place in the territories of the Carnutes, which is reckoned the central region of the whole of Gaul. Hither all, who have disputes, assemble from every part, and submit to their decrees and determinations. This institution is supposed to have been devised in Britain, and to have been brought over from it into Gaul; and now those who desire to gain a more accurate knowledge of that system generally proceed thither for the purpose of studying it.']

[7] [Histories, bk. 4. 183. 'From Augila at a distance again of ten days' journey there is another hill of salt and spring of water and a great number of fruit-bearing date-palms, as there are also in the other places: and men dwell here who are called the Garmantians, a very great nation, who carry earth to lay over the salt and then sow crops. From this point is the shortest way to the Lotophagoi, for from these it is a journey of thirty days to the country of the Garmantians. Among them also are produced the cattle which feed backwards; and they feed backwards for this reason, because they have their horns bent down forwards, and therefore they walk backwards as they feed; for forwards they cannot go, because the horns run into the ground in front of them; but in nothing else do they differ from other cattle except in this and in the thickness and firmness to the touch of their hide. These Garamantians of whom I speak hunt the "Cave-dwelling" Ethiopians with their four-horse chariots, for the Cave-dwelling Ethiopians are the swiftest of foot of all men about whom we hear report made: and the Cave-dwellers feed upon serpents and lizards and such creeping things, and they use a language which resembles no other, for in it they squeak just like bats.' Tr., Macauley.]

[8] [Through the Dark Continent, vol. 1, p. 432. 'A little way from the village we found many deep pits, with small circular mouths, which proved, on examination, to lead by several passages from the mouth of the pit to more roomy excavations, like so many apartments. These underground dwellings are numerous in Southern Unyoro.']

[10] [Dawkins, Early Man in Britain and his Place in the Tertiary Period, p. 268. 'A bone needle with drilled eye implies sewing. Fragments of pottery, not turned in the lathe, plain, or ornamented with incised curves, right lines, or lines of dots, prove a knowledge of the potter's art. They were also cultivators of the ground; for Dr. Blackmore discovered a cast of a grain of wheat in the clay which had formed a portion of the cover of one of the pits; and two concave stone grain-rubbers or "mealing-stones" for grinding corn show an acquaintance with agriculture.']

[11] [Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, bk. 6.18. 'All the Gauls assert that they are descended from the god Dis, and say that this tradition has been handed down by the Druids. For that reason they compute the divisions of every season, not by the number of days, but of nights; they keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order that the day follows the night. Among the other usages of their life, they differ in this from almost all other nations, that they do not permit their children to approach them openly until they are grown up so as to be able to bear the service of war; and they regard it as indecorous for a son of boyish age to stand in public in the presence of his father.']

[12] [Sans Cormac Incipit, in Stokes, Three Irish Glossaries, p. 41. 'Scuit .i. Scota. ingen Foraind ríg Egipte.']

[13] [Richard of Cirencester, The Ancient State of Britain. bk. 1. ch. 6. 25. 'The territory situated north of the Ordovices, and washed by the ocean, was formerly under their dominion. These parts were certainly inhabited by the Cangiani, whose chief city was Segontium, near the Cangian promontory, on the Minevian shore opposite Mona, an island long distinguished as the residence of the druids. This island contained many towns, though it was scarcely sixty miles in circuit; and, as Pliny asserts, is distant from the colony Camalodunum two hun dred miles. The rivers of the Cangiani were Tosibus, called also Canovius, and the Deva, which was their boundary. In this region is the stupendous mountain Eriri Ordovicia, together with the regions of the Cangiani and Carnabii, unless report deceives me, constituted a province called Genania, under the reign of the emperors subsequent to Trajan.' Bertram's tr., (1809 ed.), pp. 44-5 of .]

[14] [Idman, Recherches sur l'ancien peuple Finois, p. 66. 'Ce dieu passe chez les Finois pour leur plus ancienne Divinité. On croit, que c'est le même, qui joint a Taranis sut appellé Taran Utto dans les inscriptions, qui se trouvent encore en Dalmatie & auprés de Heilbron en Souabe.' There is no mention of Phanes.]

[15] [Kalevala, vol. 1, p. 211. 'Then this prayer the mother offers:
    "Suonetar, thou slender virgin,
    Goddess of the veins of heroes,
    Skilful spinner of the vessels,
    With thy slender, silver spindle,
    With thy spinning-wheel of copper,
    Set in frame of molten silver,
    Come thou hither, thou art needed;
    Bring the instruments for mending,
    Firmly knit the veins together,
    At the end join well the venules,
    In the wounds that still are open,
    In the members that are injured."'
    Editor's notes, p. xxiv: 'Suonetar is another goddess of the human frame, and plays a curious and important part in the restoration to life of the reckless Lemminkainen, as described in the following runes. She busies herself in spinning veins, and in sewing up the wounded tissues of such deserving worshipers as need her surgical skill.' Crawford's ed.]

[17] [O'Connor, Chronicles of Eri, ch. 3, pp. 88-90. 'Now it happed upon a day as Eocaid did commune with Neartan,
    That Ionar, Ard Cruimtear of Gaelen, did come unto the tent of Eocaid, and he did say,
    "As I did rise, three mornings now are passed, from the arms of the image of death, and had purified my head, my feet, my hands, and my heart in the presence of Baal,
    "And forth had walked to refresh my spirit; lo, three young men drew nigh unto me, and one said,
    "If I see Ard Cruimtear, 'twere good he knew we have tidings for the ear of the chief of En, fit to be told and heard.
    "And I did return unto Asti, nigh unto the mount of Gaelen, with the young men, and I did inquire of them, what manner of thing it was the chief should know.
    "And Saor, one of the youths, did stand up before me, and he did tell,
    "We be of the Gaol, of Sciot of Her, and have hither come with words for the ear of the chief, a son of Cier, as we hear, whose heap is raised on the rocks of the terrible sea, behind the utmost limits of our land; and hither have we come to tell.
    "Our fathers of old time did leave the land of Iber with Cathac one of the race, and his mind was to be chief. And when the chiefs of Iber would not have it so, Cathac did call unto him a company of young men, and they did provide a ship upon the gathering together of all the waters behind the land.
    "And before the day that he who was to be chosen king was named, Cathac and the young men were together.
    "Now long and long before this time, one whose name we never heard was to be called chief; and the night before the day he was to come forth into the presence of the Gaal,
    "A mighty stone, white as snow, round as the head of man, smooth as the arrow for the warrior's bow, was borne in a chest drawn by many beasts, the priests surrounding the way they moved.
    "And the priests said, how Baal had sent the blessed stone even from the bosom of the mountains that rear their mighty heads above the plains, thus formed by his own hand, white and round, and smooth, to show unto the chief, e'en what he ought to be.
    "And mighty Baal forth did send his terrible voice, saying, Let all the race for evermore receive the name of chief on Liafail, (for so they called the stone) from the mouth of the high-priest, the servant of Baal on earth.
    "And thus were four chiefs named.
    "Now before the day the chief who crossed the way Cathac desired to move was to come forth and take his seat on Liafail, lo, Cathac and the young men did bear away the blessed stone to the ship that floated on the waters behind the land of lber, and thereon they had much store;
    "For being but few to journey on the land, they would move on the face of the waters in search of their brethren, led by two of the race, to the extremity of the world of land to the sun's going, as they had heard.
    "And they were driven from their course.
    "These words have we heard; it is but a tale of other times long passed, told from mouth to ear; it is but breath: what hath been said fit for the chief to hear remains.
    "We are of Ton, companion of Cathac, our fathers told, the vessel was borne to this land, and here was broken, but all the men came safe with Liafail; and Firgneat did lead our fathers to their caves, and when they came to understand the words concerning Liafail,
    "Chiefs of Iber, Goal of Sciot, look on this stone, So smooth, so fair, so round, and so compact. Be thus; guard well this blessed gift, And in what land this messenger shall stay. A chief of Iber shall still bear the sway,"
    "Firgneat would not suffer him to abide with us; and when the Danan came to hear the words, they did bear away our Liafail from them.
    "And Liafail is now in Oldanmact, and called Stanclidden: the Danan cast their lots beneath him, as we hear.']

[18] [Morganwy, Letter, Western Mail, 12/3/74. See also letter, BB 2, app. 1.]

[19] [Geographiæ, sec. 3, 11. 'Next to the Damnoni but towards the east and more northerly, by the promontory of Epidium, are the Epidi and next to them towards the east, the Ceronei; then further east the Creones, then the Cornonai and Carini and further east still to its extreme, the Cornavi.']

[22] [Geographiæ, sec. 9, 11. 'Then next to the Mosa River the Menapi and their town.']

[24] [Weil, The Bible, The Koran, and The Talmud, p. 33. 'Allah himself addressed Adam in a voice of thunder, and said, "Wast thou not commanded to abstain from this fruit, and forewarned of the cunning of Iblis, thy foe?" Adam attempted to flee from these upbraidings, and Eve would have followed him, but he was held fast by the branches of the tree Talh, and Eve was entangled in her own disheveled hair, while a voice from the tree exclaimed, " From the wrath of Allah there is no escape: submit to his divine decree! Leave this Paradise," continued Allah, in tones of wrath, "both you, and the creatures which have seduced you to transgress: by the sweat of your brow alone shall you earn your bread; the earth shall henceforth be your abode, and its possessions shall fill your hearts with envy and malice! Eve shall be visited with all kinds of sickness, and bear children in pain. The peacock shall be deprived of his voice, and the serpent of her feet. The darkest caverns of the earth shall be her dwelling-place, dust shall be her food, and to kill her bring sevenfold reward. But Iblis shall depart into the eternal pains of hell."
Hereupon they were hurled down from Paradise with such precipitancy that Adam and Eve could scarcely snatch a leaf from one of the trees wherewith to cover themselves. Adam was flung out through the Gate of Repentance, teaching him that he might return through contrition; Eve through the Gate of Mercy; the peacock and the serpent through the Gate of Wrath, but Iblis through that of the Curse.
Adam came down on the island Serendib, Eve on Djidda, the serpent fell into the Sahara, the peacock into Persia, and Iblis dropped into the torrent Aila.']

[25] [Gen. 8:4. 'And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat.']

[26] [Num. 20:8. 'Take the rod, and gather thou the assembly together, thou, and Aaron thy brother, and speak ye unto the rock before their eyes; and it shall give forth his water, and thou shalt bring forth to them water out of the rock: so thou shalt give the congregation and their beasts drink.']

[28] [Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, p. 194. 'The Inhabitants of this Isle are generally well proportion'd, and their Complexion is for the most part black. They are not oblig'd to Art in forming their Bodies, for Nature never fails to aft her part bountifully to them; and perhaps there is no part of the habitable Globe where so few bodily Imperfections are to be seen, nor any Children that go more early.']

[31] [Grammatica Celtica, vol. 1, p. 226. 'In compositione. 1. Infectae sive assimilatae post nasalem mediae exemplum cambricum notissimum est iiomen cambricum ipsum, quod in codice Leg. scribitur Kemro, Kemry (Camber, Cambri), fem. Camraes, Camaraes (Cambra), plur. cymry, kymry in Lib. Land. privileg. eccl. p. 113 et Mab. 2, 50. 242. 3, 90. Hodiernae formae: Cymro, plur. Cymry (Camber, Cambri), fem. Cymraes (Cambra), unde Cymraeg, Cynmraeg (lingua cambrica; cf. Saesotieg, lingua saxonica, anglica), Cymru, Cymmru (Cambria). Est compositum e praep. can, juncta cyn- (con-), et subst. bro (terra, = brog, p. 106. 159) significatque in sensum adjectivi versum (ut graeca ejusmodi composita) conterraneum (cf. lat. contubornalis pro contabernalis, et hibern. vet. coitchen, ejusdem domi, communis), eandem terram habitantem, indigenam. E forma Cymro, plur. Cymry (flexionis internae, = Cymbryg, ut escyb, episcopi, ex escob, kyrn, comua, e korn) prodiere, vocali mire immutata, formae Cymru et Cymraes; vetustissima forma fuisset (si e. gr. audita Romanis, sed ortum procul dubio nomen post invasionem Saxonum) Combroges, cui significatione oppositum est vetustum gallicum nomen Allobroges, i.e. alienae terrae incolae. Ejusmodi composita et hodie exstant plura: cymraint, cymmraint (subst. comprivilogium, iclem privilegium adj. comijrivilegiatus, qui eodem fiuitur privilegio; cymbraint), cymrawdd (confabulatio; brawdd), cymrawd (confrater; brawd), cymriw (contusio; briw) etc. Porro e Mab. cymrwt (= cymbwt, armor. combot, compot, p. 209) 2, 372.']

[32] [Ez. 38:6. 'Gomer, and all his bands; the house of Togarmah of the north quarters, and all his bands: and many people with thee.']

[34] [Histories, bk. 4:36. 'Let this suffice which has been said of the Hyperboreans; for the tale of Abaris, who is reported to have been a Hyperborean, I do not tell, namely how he carried the arrow about all over the earth, eating no food. If however there are any Hyperboreans, it follows that there are also Hypernotians; and I laugh when I see that, though many before this have drawn maps of the Earth, yet no one has set the matter forth in an intelligent way; seeing that they draw Ocean flowing round the Earth, which is circular exactly as if drawn with compasses, and they make Asia equal in size to Europe. In a few words I shall declare the size of each division and of what nature it is as regards outline.' Tr. Macauley.]

[35] [Brugsch, History of Egypt Under the Pharaohs, vol. 1, p. 145. 'To these belonged Se-hathor, a true servant of his lord, one of the most distinguished officials of the court, who spared himself no pains to fulfil the commands of Pharaoh according to his wishes. In few but very instructive words, he tells us in the following manner his missions by the royal command: 'I here opened a mine with the young men, and forced the old to wash gold. I brought back the profits. I came as far as the border-land (since called Nubia). The negroes inhabiting it came, subdued by the fear which the lord of the land inspired. I entered the land Heba, visited its water places, and opened its harbours.' The land of Heba, or as it was also called, Heb, lay below the second cataract.' See full text here.]

[36] [Gen. 10:2. 'The sons of Japheth; Gomer, and Magog, and Madai, and Javan, and Tubal, and Meshech, and Tiras.']

[37] [The 'Historia Brittonum' commonly attributed to Nennius, ch. 18. 'The Britons were thus called from Brutus: Brutus was the son of Hisicion, Hisicion was the son of Alanus, Alanus was the son of Rhea Silvia, Fhea Silvia was the daughter of Numa Pompilius, Numa was the son of Ascanius, Ascanius of Eneas, Eneas of Anchises, Anchises of Troius, Troius of Dardanus, Dardanus of Flisa, Flisa of Juuin, Juuin of Japheth; but Japheth had seven sons; from the first named Gomer, descended the Galli; from the second, Magog, the Scythi and Gothi; from the third, Madian, the Medi; from the fourth, Juuan, the Greeks; from the fifth, Tubal, arose the Hebrei, Hispani, and Itali; from the sixth, Mosoch, sprung the Cappadoces; and from the seventh, named Tiras, descended the Thraces: these are the sons of Japheth, the son of Noah, the son of Lamech.']

[39] [Hymn to Delos, hymn 4, lines 173-4. 'Yea and one day hereafter there shall come upon us a common struggle, when the Titans of a later day shall rouse up against the Hellenes barbarian sword and Celtic war, and from the furthest West rush on like snowflakes and in number as the stars when they flock most thickly in the sky.' The Greek text clearly has Κελτόν.]

[40] [Marcellinus, Roman History, bk. 26.4.5. 'At this time the trumpet as it were gave signal for war throughout the whole Roman world, and thebarbarian tribes on our frontier were moved to make incursion on those territories which lay nearest to them. The Allemanni laid waste Gaul and Rhaetia at the same time. The Sarmatians and Quadi ravaged Pannonia. The Picts, Scots, Saxons, and Atacotti harassed the Britons with incessant invasions; the Austoniani and other Moorish tribes attacked Africa with more than usual violence. predatory bands of the Goths plundered Thrace.' Yonge's tr.]

[41] [Against Jovinianus, bk. 2.7. 'The Sarmatians, the Chuadi, the Vandals, and countless other races, delight in the flesh of horses and wolves. Why should I speak of other nations when I myself, a youth on a visit to Gaul. heard that the Atticoti, a British tribe, eat human flesh, and that although they find herds of swine, and droves of large or small cattle in the woods, it is their custom to cut off the buttocks of the shepherds and the breasts of their women, and to regard them as the greatest delicacies? The Scots have no wives of their own; as though they read Plato's Republic and took Cato for their leader, no man among them has his own wife, but like beasts they indulge their lust to their hearts' content.' Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd ser., vol. 6. p. 394.]

[42] [Romona Lavo-lil, under 'Purrum,' 'Leek, onion. Lat. Porrum.
Purrum / Purrun, n. pr. Lee, or Leek; the name of a numerous Gypsy tribe in the neighbourhood of London. Wal. Pur (onion). Lat. Porrum. Sans. Purãna (ancient).']

[46] [Hunt, Popular Romances of the West of England, vol. 2, p. 19. 'This name of Chiwidden is a famous name in Cornish hagiography. He was the companion of St. Perran, or St. Piran, the most popular saint among the mining population of Cornwall.
Mr. Hunt, who in his interesting work, "The Popular Romances of the West of England," has assigned a separate chapter to Cornish saints, tells us how St. Piran, while living in Ireland, fed ten Irish kings and their armies, for ten days together, with three cows. Notwithstanding this and other miracles, some of these kings condemned him to be cast off a precipice into the sea, with a millstone round his neck. St. Piran, however, floated on safely to Cornwall, and he landed, on the 5th of March, on the sands which still bear his name, Perranzaluloe, or Perran on the Sands.' From Muller, Chips From A German Workshop, vol. 3, p. 300.
'Let us hear what the Cornish have to tell of him. His name occurs in several names of places, such as Perran Zabuloe, Perran Uthno, in Perran the Little, and in Perran Arworthall. His name, pronounced Perran, or Piran, has been further corrupted into Picras, and Picrous, though some authorities suppose that this is again a different saint from St. Piran. Anyhow, both St. Perran and St. Picras live in the memory of the Cornish miner as the discoverers of tin; and the tinners great holiday, the Thursday before Christmas, is still called Picrou's day.' From Muller, ibid., vol. 3, p. 303.]

[47] [Geoffrey, History of the Kings of Britain, bk. 1, ch. 16. 'Their Duke was called Corineus, a sober-minded man and excellent in counsel, mighty in body, valiance and hardiness, insomuch as that if it were he had to deal with a giant in single combat he would straightway overthrow him as though he were wrestling with a lad. Accordingly, when they knew the ancient stock whereof he was born, they took him into their company, as well as the people whereof he was chieftain, that in after-days were called Cornishmen after the name of their Duke. He it was that in all encounters was of more help to Brute than were any of the others.' P. 25, 1904 ed.]

[48] [See Muller, Chips From A German Workshop, vol. 3, p. 299. 'In an old map, apparently drawn by hand, which appears to have been inserted in this book after it was published, Market Iew is given, and in the map issued with the book Market Jew.
    "The map of Cornwall, contained in Camden's Britannia, by Gibson, 1772, gives Market-Jew. The edition 1789, by Gough, states at page 3, that Merkiu signifies the Market of Jupiter, from the market being held on a Thursday, the day sacred to Jupiter.
    "Carew's Survey of Cornwall, ed. 1769, p. 156, has the following: Over against the Mount frouteth a towne of petty fortune, pertinently named Marcaiew, or Marhas diow, in English "the Thursdaies market," In the edition published in 1811, p. 378, it is stated in a foot-note that Marazion means market on the Strand, the name being well adapted to its situation, for Zion answers to the Latin litus."
    Now it is perfectly true that no real Cornishman, I mean no man who spoke Cornish, would ever have taken Marchadiew for Market Jew, or Jews Market. The name for Jew in Cornish is quite different. It is Edhow, Yedhow, Yudhow, corrupted likewise into Ezow; plural, Yedhewon, etc. But to a Saxon ear the Cornish name Marchadiew might well convey the idea of Market Jew, and thus, by a metamorphic process, a name meaning in Cornish the Markets would give rise in a perfectly natural manner, not only to the two names, Marazion and Market Jew, but likewise to the historical legends of Jews settled in the county of Cornwall.'
Ibid., vol. 3, p. 306. 'If, then, we suppose that in exactly the same manner the people of Cornwall spoke of Tshey-houses, or Dshyi-houses, is it so very extraordinary that this hybrid word should at last have been interpreted as Jew-houses or Jews houses f I do not say that the history of the word can be traced through all its phases with the same certainty as that of Marazion; all I maintain is that, in explaining its history, no step has been admitted that cannot be proved by sufficient evidence to be in strict keeping with the well-known movements, or, if it is respectful to say so, the well-known antics of language.
    Thus vanish the Jews from Cornwall; but there still remain the Saracens. One is surprised to meet with Saracens in the West of England; still more, to hear of their having worked in the tin-mines, like the Jews. According to some writers, however, Saracen is only another name for Jews, though no explanation is given why this detested name should have been applied to the Jews in Cornwall, and nowhere else.']

[49] [Itinerary. From Muller, ibid., vol. 3, p. 294. 'Thus we find that Camden calls Marazion Merkiu; Carew, Marcaiew. Leland in his "Itinerary" (about 1538) uses the names Markesin, Markine (vol. iii. fol. 4); and in another place (vol. vii. fol. 119) he applies, it would seem, to the same town the name of Marasdeythyon.']

[50] [Ibid., vol. 3, p. 294. 'William of Worcester (about 1478) writes promiscuously Markysyoo (p. 103), Marchew and Margew (p. 133), Marchasyowe and Markysyow (p. 98).']

[51] [The Ancient Cornish Drama, vol. 2, p. 237. '"It may be given as a rule, without exception, that words ending with t or d in Welsh or Briton, do, if they exist in Cornish, turn t or d to s."' From Muller, ibid., vol. 3, p. 312.]

[54] [Gen. 10:13. 'And Mizraim begat Ludim, and Anamim, and Lehabim, and Naphtuhim.']

[57] [Ausonius, Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium (i.e., The Professors of Bordeaux), v. 4.

'Attius patera [pater] rhetor	ATTIUS PATERA, THE ELDER, THE RHETORICIAN
Aetate quamquam viceris dictos prius,	PATERA, renowned speaker, although in years you outpassed the men named earlier, yet, seeing that your prime was in the age next before my own, and that in my youth I saw you in your old age, you shall not lack the tribute of my sad dirge, teacher of mighty rhetoricians. If report does not lie, you were sprung from the stock of the Druids of Bayeux, and traced your hallowed line from the temple of Belenus; and hence the names borne by your family: you are called Patera; so the mystic votaries call the servants of Apollo. Your father and your brother were named after Phoebus, and your own son after Delphi. In that age there was none who had such knowledge as you, such swift and rolling eloquence. Sound in memory as in learning, you had the gift of clear expression cast in sonorous and well-chosen phrase; your wit was chastened and without a spice of bitterness: sparing of food and wine, cheerful, modest, comely in person, even in age you were as an eagle or a steed grown old.'
Patera, fandi nobilis;
tamen quod aevo floruisti proximo
iuvenisque te vidi senem,
honore maestae non carebis neniae,
doctor potentum rhetorum.
Tu Baiocassi stirpe Druidarum satus,
si fama non fallit fidem,
Beleni a sacratum ducis e templo genus
et inde vobis nomina:
tibi Paterae; sic ministros nuncupant
Apollinares mystice.
Fratri patrique nomen a Phoebo datum
natoque de Delphis tuo.
Doctrina nulli tanta in illo tempore
cursusque tot fandi et rotae:
memor, disertus, lucida facundia,
canore, cultu praeditus,
salibus modestus felle nullo perlitis,
vini cibique abstemius,
laetus, pudicus, pulcher, in senio quoque
aquilae ut senectus aut equi.'

[60] [Knight, A Discourse on the Worship of Priapus, illustrations. See plates 29 & 30 for examples.]

[61] [Jamieson, An Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees, p. 109. 'Camerarius is at great pains to shew that the Bridget, who was contemporary with St Patrick, was a native of North Britain. His principal proof is, that by so many writers she is designed Scota, or a Scottish woman. This, however, from the period in which they wrote, is of no weight; as no candid person can doubt that, by foreign writers, the term was, in the middle ages, most generally applied to the inhabitants of Ireland. The idea of St Patrick introducing St Bridget at Abernethy, must therefore be rejected as a fable.'
See also Vallancey, Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis, p. 200-251.
Herbert, Nimrod, vol. 2, p. 639-645.]

[62] [Jamieson, An Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees, p. 189. Unable to trace.]

[63] ['JULY 23. The departure out of this life of St. Bridget, widdow, who, after many peregrinations made to holy places, full of the Holy Ghost, finally reposed at Rome: whose body was after translated into Suevia. Her principal festivity is celebrated upon the seaventh of October." See the Roman Martyrologe according to the Reformed Calendar, translated into English by G. K. of the Society of Jesus, 1627.' G. Keynes. From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, p. 345.]

[64] [Stevenson, Gammer Gurton's Needle, act 1, sc. 1, (1575) p. 6. 'My gammer sat her downe on her pes, & bad me reach thy breeches
And by & by, a vengeance in it or she had take two stitches.'
See also BB 1:69.]

[66] [The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nations. I can find no text of Bede where the Picts are written as Pehtas. See bk. ch. 1 of this text for example. I give both the Latin and its Eng. tr. 'Procedente autem tempore, Brittania post Brettones et Pictos tertiam Scottorum nationem in Pictorum parte recepit; qui duce Reuda de Hibernia progressi, uel amicitia uel ferro sibimet inter eos sedes, quas hactenus habent, uindicarunt; a quo uidelicet duce usque hodie Dalreudini uocantur, nam lingua eorum daal partem significat.'
'In process of time, Britain, besides the Britons and the Picts, received a third nation the Scots, who, migrating from Ireland under their leader, Reuda, either by fair means, or by force of arms, secured to themselves those settlements among the Picts which they still possess. From the name of their commander, they are to this day called Dalreudins; for, in their language, Dal signifies a part.']

[67] [The Ancient State of Britain, bk. 1. ch. 8.11. 'The Rhobogdii occupied the coast of the island next to the Deucalidonian sea. Their metropolis was Rhobogdium. In the eastern part of their territories was situated the promontory of the same name; in the western, the Promontorium Boneam, or Northern Promontory. Their rivers were the Banna, Darabouna, Argitta, and Vidua; and towards the south, mountains separated them from the Scotti.' Bertram's ed., 1809.]

[68] ['BUZZA: TO BUZZA ONE. I KNOW nothing of the meaning of this word. I have been told that it is a college expression, and contains a threat, in the way of pleasantry, to black the person's face with a burnt cork, should he flinch or fail to empty the bottle. Possibly it may have been derived from the German "buzzen," sordes auferre, q. d. "Off with the lees at bottom." Grose explains this as signifying to challenge a person to pour out all the wine in the bottle into his glass, undertaking to drink it, should it prove more than the glass would hold.' From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, p. 343.]

[69] [Cokwolds Daunce, in Hazlitt, Remains of Early Poetry of England, vol. 1, p. 43. 'All theyr wyves sykerlyke
Hath vsyd the baskefysyke.']

[70] [Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, p. 423. 'Kissing the Post.' 'BAGFORD, in his Letter relating to the Antiquities of London, printed in the first vol. of Leland's Collectanea, 1770, and dated Feb. 1, 171415, p. lxxvi. says: "This brings to my mind another ancient custom, that hath been omitted of late years. It seems that, in former times, the porters that ply'd at Billingsgate used civilly to intreat and desire every man that passed that way to salute a post that stood there in a vacant place. If he refused to do this, they forthwith laid hold of him, and by main force bouped his * * * * against the post; but, if he quietly submitted to kiss the same, and paid down sixpence, then they gave him a name, and chose some one of the gang for his godfather. I believe this was done in memory of some old image that formerly stood there, perhaps of Belms, or Belin." He adds: "Somewhat of the like post, or rather stump, was near St. Paul's, and is at this day call'd St. Paul's stump."
It is the duty of the Rector of St. Mary-at-Hill, in which parish Billingsgate is situated, to preach a sermon every year on the first Sunday after Midsummer day, before the Society of Fellowship Porters, exhorting them to be charitable towards their old decayed brethren, and "to bear one another's burthens."']

[71] ['The stump spoken of by Bagford is probably alluded to in Good Newes and Bad Newes, by S. R., 1622, where the author, speaking of a countryman who had been to see the sights of London, mentions
"The water-workes, huge Paul's, old Charing Crosse,
Strong London bridge, at Billinsgate the bosse."' S. Rowlands. From Brand, ibid., vol. 2, p. 423.]

[74] ['Col. Vallancey, in his Essay on the Antiquity of the Irish Language, 1772, p. 21, speaking of Ceres, tells us: "Mr. Rollin thinks this deity was the same queen of heaven to whom the Jewish women burnt incense, poured out drink offerings, and made cakes for her with their own hands." Jerem. ch. xvii. v. 18; and adds: "This Pagan custom is still preserved in Ireland on the eve of St. Bridget; and which was probably transposed to St. Bridget's Eve, from the festival of a famed poetess of the same name in the time of Paganism. In an ancient Glossary now before me, she is described: 'Bridget, a poetess, the daughter of Dagha; a goddess of Ireland. On St. Bridget's Eve every farmer's wife in Ireland makes a cake, called Bairinbreac; the neighbours are invited, the madder of ale and the pipe go round, and the evening concludes with mirth and festivity."' From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, p. 346.]

[75] [The Races of Afghanistan, p. 57. 'Be this as it may, and there Is no denying the fact that the name Pukhtiin-khwa. the "Pukhtun coast or quarter" is very well in accordance with the character of the country in its physical aspect; there is also the fact that, in the time of Herodotus, four centuries before our era, this very country was called Pactiya or Pactiyica, and its natives Pactiyans. In Western Afghanistan, the harsh hk is changed into the soft sh, and Pukhtin becomes Pushkin, Pukhtu becomes Pushtu, and so on. By some Pukhttin tribes the Afridi notably Pukhtun, Pukhtu, &c., are pronounced Pakhtiin, Pakhtu, &c, and this brings the words nearer to the Pakhtues of Herodotus. In short, the Pakhtun or Pukhtun of to-day, we may take it, is identical in race and position with the Pactiyan of the Greek historian.
There is a very remarkable coincidence in terms, if nothing more, derivable from this word Pactiya, Herodotus mentions another and entirely distinct country of this name in the province of Armenia. And it is not difficult to trace the same name through the countries of Southern Europe to the
ancient Pictavium or modern Poictiers in France, and thence on to the Picts of our own Islands In fact, to the curious speculator in archaeology, there is a wide field for enquiry and research in this Pakhttiu-khwa country, where the Pacts and Scyths who inhabit it may be held to correspond with the Picts and Scots of our own country, whilst the Kambari of the Khan of Kelat's family, and large sections of the Afridi people, called Kambar-khel and Kamari, together with the Logari of Logar or Lohgar, may be compared with the Cambrians and Logiians, of ancient Britain.']

[81] [Leland, Ad Cyg. Cant. (Song of Swan, or Swansong). 'The History of Oxford in the Proctors' book, and certain old verses, kept somewhere in this tract, affirm, that with Brute came hither certain Greek Philosophers, from whose name and profession here it was thus called, and as an University afterward translated to Oxford (upon like notation a company of Physicians retiring to Lechlade in this shire, gave that its title, as I. Rous adds in his story to Hen. VII.). But Godwin and a very old Anonymus, cited by Br. Twine, refer it to Theodore of Tarsus in Cilicia (made Archbishop of Canterbury by Pope Vitalian under Ecghert, King of Kent) very skilful in both tongues, and an extraordinary restorer of learning to the English-Saxons; That he had (among other) Greek schools, is certain by Bede's affirmation that some of his scholars understood both Greek and Latin as their mother language. Richard of the Vies will that Penda, King of Merdand, first deduced a colony of Cambridge men hither, and calls it Crekelade, as other Kirklade with variety of names: but I suspect all; as well for omission of it in best authorities, as also that the name is so different in itself. Grecolade was never honoured with Greek schools, as the ignorant multitude think, saith Leland, affirming it should be rather Creclade, Lechclade, or Lathlade. Nor methinks (of all) stands it with the British story, making the tongue then a kind of Greek (a matter, that way reasonable enough, seeing it is questionless that colonies anciently derived out of the Western Asia, Peliponnesus, Hellas, and those Continents into the coast whence Brute came, transported the Greek with them) that profession of Grecians should make this so particular a name.' Quoted in Drayton, Polyolbion, in Complete Works, vol. 1, p. 85.]

[85] [Mabinogion, (1877 ed.), pp. 210-11. 'Lloegyr is the term used by the Welsh to designate England. The writers of the Middle Ages derive the name from the son of the Trojan Brutus, Locryn (already alluded to, p. 206), and whose brother, Camber, bequeathed his name to the Principality.
But from another authority, that of the Triads, we collect that the name was given to the country by an ancient British tribe, called the Lloegrwys.']

[87] [Sanas Cormaic, p. 128. 'Orb nomen viri, a quo Orbraige,
Orbh was the ancestor of the people called Orbhraighe, who were descended from Fereidhech, son of Fergus mac Roigh, king of Ulster in the first century. They were seated in and gave their name to the barony of Orrery in the co. Cork.—O'D. Orbh, i.e. Orv, is perhaps from the same root as the Skr. arvan 'horse'. The raige may be = A.S. rige in sudh-rige etc.—Ed.'
Ibid., p. 86 of Kuno Meyer's ed., 1913. '1006. Orb nomen uiri a quo Orbraige nominatur.'
Stokes, Three Irish Glossaries, p. 33. 'Orb nomen virí a quo Orbraige.']

[92] ['Western Isles, p. 225, Arran. He mentions a green stone, much like a globe in figure, about the bigness of a goose egg, which for its intrinsic value has been carefully transmitted to posterity for several ages. "The virtue of it is to remove stitches in the side, by laying it close to the place affected. They say if the patient does not outlive the distemper, the stone removes out of the bed of its own accord, and e contra. The natives use this stone for swearing decisive oaths upon it. The credulous vulgar believe that if this stone is cast among the front of an enemy they will all run away. The custody of it is the peculiar privilege of a family called Clan-Chattons, alias Mackintosh."' From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 319.]

[93] [Jud. 5:15-16. 'And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah; even Issachar, and also Barak: he was sent on foot into the valley. For the divisions of Reuben there were great thoughts of heart.
Why abodest thou among the sheepfolds, to hear the bleatings of the flocks? For the divisions of Reuben there were great searchings of heart.' KJV, LXX, Peshita, Targum.]

[94] [A Satire, In Imitation of the Third of Juvenal. 'Who's there? he cries, and takes you by the throat;
    Dog! are you dumb? Speak quickly, else my foot
    Shall march about your buttocks; whence d'ye come?
    From what bulk-ridden strumpet reeking home?' Poetical Works, p. 201. ]

[95] [Herodotus, Histories, bk. 1.84. 'The following is the way in which Sardis was taken. On the fourteenth day of the siege Cyrus bade some horsemen ride about his lines, and make proclamation to the whole army that he would give a reward to the man who should first mount the wall. After this he made an assault, but without success. His troops retired, but a certain Mardian, Hyrceades by name, resolved to approach the citadel and attempt it at a place where no guards were ever set. On this side the rock was so precipitous, and the citadel (as it seemed) so impregnable, that no fear was entertained of its being carried in this place. Here was the only portion of the circuit round which their old king having the day before observed a Lydian soldier descend the rock after a helmet that had rolled down from the top, and having seen him pick it up and carry it back, thought over what he had witnessed, and formed his plan. He climbed the rock himself, and other Persians followed in his track, until a large number had mounted to the top. Thus was Sardis taken, and given up entirely to pillage.' Tr., Rawlinson.
'Now the taking of Sardis came about as follows: When the fourteenth day came after Crœsus began to be besieged, Cyrus made proclamation to his army, sending horsemen round to the several parts of it, that he would give gifts to the man who should first scale the wall. After this the army made an attempt; and when it failed, then after all the rest had ceased from the attack, a certain Mardian whose name was Hyroiades made an attempt to approach on that side of the citadel where no guard had been set; for they had no fear that it would ever be taken from that side, seeing that here the citadel is precipitous and unassailable. To this part of the wall alone Meles also, who formerly was king of Sardis, did not carry round the lion which his concubine bore to him, the Telmessians having given decision that if the lion should be carried round the wall, Sardis should be safe from capture: and Meles having carried it round the rest of the wall, that is to say those parts of the citadel where the fortress was open to attack, passed over this part as being unassailable and precipitous: now this is a part of the city which is turned towards Tmolos. So then this Mardian Hyroiades, having seen on the day before how one of the Lydians had descended on that side of the citadel to recover his helmet which had rolled down from above, and had picked it up, took thought and cast the matter about in his own mind. Then he himself ascended first, and after him came up others of the Persians, and many having thus made approach, Sardis was finally taken and the whole city was given up to plunder.' Tr., Macauley.]

[98] [Vallancey, Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis, vol. 4, p. li. 'In this cave were three altars, corresponding to the supposed number of the Cabiri. But I have great reason to think, they afterwards made their holy fires in the round towers, and that the building of them was introduced by the Tuath Dadanann priests from Etruria; because we are told, that the old priests, the Firbolg, opposed the doctrine of these Tuath Dadanann; a holy war broke out, which ended at length in two battles, one fought at the plains of the North tower, and the other at those of the South tower.'
Ibid., p. xii. 'In the preface to my last number, I showed the mistake of Keating and the bards he had copied, in making the Firbolg and Tuath Dadanann, colonies. They were only the names of the different orders of priests, that arrived with the colonies. I take the first to be the more antient order.']

[99] [O'Flaherty, Ogygia: seu, Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia, vol. 2, p. 18. 'The Dananns, under the command of Nuadd with the Silver-hand invaded Ireland from the northern parts of Britain: a decisive battle is fought at Moyture, in Partry, near the Lake in Conmacniaf, belonging to Cuiltoladh, where, in a bloody engagement, the power and superiority of the Belgians were totally sunk and overturned!
Their king Achy, being slain at Traigh-an-Chairn, by Cafarb, Luarh, and Luachra, the sons of Badra, who was the son of Nemeth, of the Danannian forces, who pursued him thither from the battle.
Nuad, general of the Dananns, lost a hand in this conflict, in the place of which he was accommodated with an artificial silver-hand; wherefore he was called Silver-handed. Cred, a goldsmith, formed the hand, and Miach, the son of Dian Kect, well instructed in the practical parts of chirurgery, set the arm!'
Wood, Inquiry Respecting the Primitive Inhabitants of Ireland Illustrated by Ptolemy's Map of Erin, p. 20. 'The followers of the family of Geanann and Rughruidhe went by the name of Fir Domhnann; and some antiquaries assert that, these two princes, with their third of the army, landed in Irrus Domhnan, and that that place has its name from them, yet those five sons of Deala—Kindred, with their whole army, were known by the general name of Fir Bolg—Before them no one possessed the island, who could properly be called king of Ireland. O'Flaherty informs us, through Coenian the poet, that there were but nine Belgic kings in Ireland, and that their reign lasted but thirty years: he however quotes a chronological poem, which extends it to eighty years, a duration which he thinks more probable. Dr. Keating states it at fifty-six, or, according to the late translation, at thirty-six. Eochaidh, son of Eire, the fourth in descent from Loch—the Sea, reigned ten years. He was the last monarch of Ireland of the Fir Bolg race, and, during his reign the silver-handed Nuadha, king of the Tuatha De Danann, invaded the island, when, after a desperate battle fought at Magh Tuireadh, in the county of Galway, near Loch Masc, Eochaidh was routed, and ten thousand, or, according to others, one hundred thousand of the Fir Bolg were slain, between that place and Youghal—Eochail.']

[101] [Amos 1:5. 'I will break also the bar of Damascus, and cut off the inhabitant from the plain of Aven, and him that holdeth the sceptre from the house of Eden: and the people of Syria shall go into captivity unto Kir, saith the LORD.'
Amos 9:7. 'Are ye not as children of the Ethiopians unto me, O children of Israel? saith the LORD. Have not I brought up Israel out of the land of Egypt? and the Philistines from Caphtor, and the Syrians from Kir?']

[107] [Schoolcraft, Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, vol. 1, p. 311. 'The government of the Chickasaws, until they moved to the west of the Mississippi, had a king, whom they called Minko, and there is a clan or family by that name, that the king is taken from. The king is hereditary through the female side. They then had chiefs out of different families or clans.']

[112] [Chronicles of Eri; being the History of the Gaal Sciot Iber, or Irish People. Quoted in note below.]

[113] [The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, vol. 1, intro. 23. 'The internal struggles of hostile races, and external aggression of the dominant one, naturally led, as it has invariably races in first led everywhere, to tyranny on the one hand, and rebellion on our era. the other. During the first three centuries of the Christian era, the war of races was constant, and one, or as some think two, political revolutions occurred. These revolutions are of very great interest, but unfortunately the accounts of them are not only obscure, but distorted by those who have transmitted them. The latter belonged to the dominant race, and have accordingly taken care not to put their opponents in a favourable light. These revolutions are connected with people called Aithech Tuatha, or rent-paying tribes, as Professor O'Curry explained the word. That explanation, though not strictly correct, indirectly gives us the character of the people. They are usually identified with the Atticotti of Roman writers; the period at which the revolutions are supposed to have occurred and the resemblance of names, no doubt suggesting the notion of their identity. There are, however, no reliable data to confirm the hypothesis, although there is much indirect evidence in its favour. Dr. O'Connor interprets Aithech Tuatlia as "giganteam gentem"; Dr. Lynch, in his Cambrensis Eversus, by "Plebeiorum hominum genus", an explanation which agrees in the main with O'Curry's.']

[116] [Smith, Loch Etive and the Sons of Uisnach, p. 75. 'That great wood through which the road passes to Oban, great in extent but of small birches chiefly, is cut every twenty-four years, and is soon burnt down by that greedy furnace. But the district cannot supply all that is wanted, although the amount of iron made is very small. Still, it pays, and the reason for this is that it brings fourteen pounds per ton when the coal iron near Glasgow is worth about three or four. That is the wood of Naisi, the Coille Ndois, and it ought not to be passed over as merely a coal cellar of some English Company, but I will tell you more of it some day. Naisi was the eldest of the sons of Uisnach.']

[117] [Dawkins, Early Man in Britain and his Place in the Tertiary Period, p. 367. 'Cremation, however, did not altogether abolish the older practice of inhumation. It is evident that both were carried on simultaneously, from the researches of Thurnam in the south of England, Bateman in Derbyshire, and Greenwell in the northern counties. The one may have been connected, as Dr. Fred. Wiberg suggests, with the worship of fire, and the other may have been employed by the descendants of the Neolithic Britons from the force of habit, and from its cheapness by the poorer classes.
The barrows and cairns of the Bronze age are generally round, and without large sepulchral chambers with (FIG. 137) passages leading into them, such as we have seen in the more important Neolithic burial-places.']

[120] [The Past in the Present, p. 6. 'In some districts, where it has fully and completely died out, a point of much interest presents itself. In certain parts of the Mainland of Shetland, for instance, quite within hail of Fetlar, there remains no knowledge either of the existence or use of such things as the spindle and whorl among the people; yet, a century back and less, they were common objects there. So is it also with some parts of the outer Hebrides, where the sudden disappearance of the spindle and whorl, and the complete oblivion into which all about them has fallen, made a deep impression on my mind. It did so, because it happens that in these same districts whorls are still to be frequently seen. Being of stone, they do not rot away like spindles, and they are often turned up in diggings about deserted townships. By those who so find them they are treated with a superstitious respect and care, being regarded as charms, and known under the name of Adder Stones.']

[121] [Ibid., p. 1. 'In the summer of 1864 I had occasion to visit Fetlar, one of the Shetland group of islands. As I walked from the landing-place to the nearest township, I overtook a little boy; and, while I was asking him some questions about the people and places, I observed that he was giving shape with his pocket-knife to a piece of stone. At first I thought his occupation was the analogue of the purposeless whittle of the Yankee. But on looking more attentively at the results and progress of his cutting, I saw that he had some definite object in view, and I asked him what he intended to make out of the stone. "A whorl for my mother," was the ready reply. With equal readiness he gave me the half-manufactured whorl, which I regarded as an important find. It is made of coarse steatite or soapstone, which is called Kleber-stone in Shetland, and which is soft and easily cut.']

[122] [Ibid., p. 156. 'But is this conclusion necessarily correct? Does the growth of a superstition round such objects always prove their great antiquity? In the case of the whorl, for instance, have we not found that less than a single century was needed to transform it into an adder-bead and an amulet?']

[123] [Ibid., p. 73. 'In August 1866, along with two friends, I visited the great cave at the south side of Wick Bay. It was nine at night, and getting dark when we reached it. It is situated in a cliff, and its mouth is close to the sea. Very high tides, especially with north-east winds, reach the entrance, and force the occupants to seek safety in the back part of the cave, which is at a somewhat higher level than its mouth.
We found twenty-four inmates men, women, and children belonging to four families, the heads of which were all there. They had retired to rest for the night a short time before our arrival, but their fires were still smouldering. They received us civilly, perhaps with more than mere civility, after a judicious distribution of pence and tobacco. To our great relief the dogs, which were numerous and vicious, seemed to understand that we were made welcome.']

[124] [Ibid., pp. 25-28. 'Before reaching Barvas we had a detour to make and some business to transact. When we got there, we found that our acquaintance of the roadside had preceded us. He had hurried home to tell of the profitable sale he had made, and while our horse was feeding, we were visited by many people carrying vessels like the one we had bought, and offering them for sale.
    They are called Craggans, and we learned that, at a period by no means remote, they had been made in many of the villages of The Lewis, though at the time of our visit their manufacture was chiefly, if not entirely, confined to Barvas. The following woodcuts (Figs. 19 to 23) sufficiently show their form and character.
    We were told that it was woman's work to make them, and one of the makers was pointed out to us as particularly skilful. Knowing that, after a couple of days, we should have again to pass through Barvas, we engaged her to show us the process of manufacture. This she duly did.
    The clay she used underwent no careful or special preparation. She chose the best she could get, and picked out of it the larger stones, leaving the sand and the finer gravel which it contained. With her hands alone she gave to the clay its desired shape. She had no aid from anything of the nature of a potter's wheel. In making the smaller Craggans, with narrow necks, she used a stick with a curve on it to give form to the inside. All that her fingers could reach was done with them.
    Having shaped the Craggan, she let it stand for a day to dry, then took it to the fire in the centre of the floor of her hut, filled it with burning peats, and built burning peats all round it. When sufficiently baked, she withdrew it from the fire, emptied the ashes out, and then poured slowly into it and over it about a pint of milk, in order to make it less porous. The Craggan was then ready for use and sale.
    It is desirable at once to realise, with regard to these Craggans, that there is nothing known in the way of pottery more rude. They are made of coarse clay containing sand and gravel; they are not baked in an oven, but in an open fireplace; they are shaped with the hands, without aid from any sort of potter's wheel; they are unglazed; they are globular and without pediment; they are nearly always entirely destitute of ornament, and such ornamentation as does occasionally occur on them is composed of straight lines made with a pointed stick, or the thumb nail, or a piece of cord. The rudest pottery ever discovered among the relics of the stone-age is not ruder than this, and no savages now in the world are known to make pottery of a coarser character.
    Note: Tiree Craggans: The following notes are taken from a letter addressed to Mr. William MacGillivray, W.S., by Dr. Alexander Buchanan of Tiree, where Craggans of small size are still occasionally made. He says that the only Craggans now made in Tiree are small globular vessels, in which milk, drawn directly into them from the cow, is warmed and given to persons showing a tendency to consumption. Milk so treated is said to be "milk without wind," and is supposed by the people to have special curative effects. There never was, Dr. Buchanan thinks, any large factory of pottery on the island. Each little community had its own potter. In making the Craggan now, he says that the red or blue clay, after kneading, gets its form without the use of anything like a potter's wheel, of which there is no trace or tradition, though in Gaelic legends no article is more frequently mentioned than the Craggan. "When shaped it is first dried before a common turf-fire, and then placed in the fire and subjected to great heat. When removed, fresh milk is poured into it, in order to give it a better surface, and make it less porous. One hundred and twenty years ago, he says, Craggans were the only articles in common use in the island for culinary purposes; large ones were used as pots for boiling, others were used to keep milk, and others as milking pails. They were even used as churns. But, he says, the process of manufacture has not improved with the progress of knowledge.'
Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 1, p. 45. 'Fynes Moryson's description of the wild or 'meere' Irish about 1600, is amazing. The very lords of them, he says, dwelt in poor clay houses, or cabins of boughs covered with turf. In many parts men as well as women had in very winter time but a linen rag about the loins and a woollen mantle on their bodies, so that it would turn a man's stomach to see an old woman in the morning before breakfast. He notices their habit of burning oats from the straw, and making cakes thereof. They had no tables, but set their meat on a bundle of grass. They feasted on fallen horses, and seethed pieces of beef and pork with the unwashed entrails of beasts in a hollow tree, lapped in a raw cow's hide, and so set over the fire, and they drank milk warmed with a stone first cast into the fire. Another district remarkable for a barbaric simplicity of life is the Hebrides. Till of late years, there were to be found there in actual use earthen vessels, unglazed and made by hand without the potter's wheel, which might pass in a museum as indifferent specimens of savage manufacture. These 'craggans' are still made by an old woman at Barvas for sale as curiosities. Such a modern state of the potter's art in the Hebrides fits well with George Buchanan's statement in the 16th century that the islanders used to boil meat in the beast's own paunch or hide.']

[125] [An History of Ireland, from the Years 1599-1603, vol. 2, p. 372-78. 'They "sleep under the canopy of heaven, or in a poor house of clay, or in a cabin made of the boughs of trees, and covered with turf, for such are the dwellings of the very lords among them. And, in such places, they make a fire in the midst of the room, and round about it they sleep upon the ground, without straw or other thing under them, lying all in a circle about the fire, with their feet towards it. And their bodies being naked, they cover their heads and upper parts with their mantles."
    "The foresaid wild Irish do not thresh their oats, but burn them from the straw, and so make cakes thereof."
    "They drink milk warmed with a stone first cast into the fire."
    "These pieces of flesh, also the intrails of beasts unwashed, they seeth in a hollow tree, lapped in a raw cow's hide, and so set over the fire."
    "What do I speak of tables since, indeed, they have no tables, but eat their meat upon a bundle of grass."
    "At Cork, I have seen with these eyes young maids stark naked, grinding of corn with certain stones to make cakes thereof."
    I give these quotations merely to show that, though I have taken my illustrations from Scotland, which I happen to know well, I should probably have found illustrations quite as telling, had I gone in quest of them either to Ireland or to England. I do not think I am wrong in saying this of England as well as of Ireland. If they have not been found there, it is probably because they have not been looked for.' From Mitchell, The Past in the Present, p. 279.]

[126] ['Martin, in his Western Islands (1703), p. 204, says, "the ancient way of dressing Corn, which is yet us'd in several Isles, is call'd Graddan, from the Irish word Grad; which signifies quick. A Woman sitting down, takes a handful of Corn, holding it by the Stalks in her left hand, and then sets fire to the Ears, which are presently in a flame; she has a Stick in her right hand, which she manages very dexterously, beating off the Grain at the very Instant, when the Husk is quite burnt, for if she miss of that, she must use the Kiln; but Experience has taught them this Art to perfection. The Corn may be so dressed, winowed, ground, and baked within an Hour after reaping from the Ground. The Oat-bread dressed as above is loosening, and that dress'd in the Kiln Astringent, and of greater strength for Labourers: but they love the Graddan, as being more agreeable to their taste."' From Mitchell, ibid., p. 238.
Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 1, p. 45. 'Early in the 18th century Martin mentions as prevalent there the ancient way of dressing corn by burning it dexterously from the ear, which he notices to be a very quick process, thence called 'graddan' (Gaelic, grad = quick).']

[127] [Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, vol. 5, p. 464. Note, Birch has 'grain' not 'corn.']

[129] [Muller, Chips From A German Workshop, vol. 3, pp. 319-21. 'In a more recent paper read at the Royal Institution (April 5, 1867), Mr. Pengelly has somewhat modified his opinion. Taking for granted that at some time or other St. Michael's Mount was a peninsula and not yet an island, he calculates that it most have taken 16,800 years before the coast line could have receded from the Mount to the present cliffs. He arrived at this result by taking the retrocession of the cliffs at ten feet in a century, the distance between the Mount and the mainland being at present 1,680 feet.
If, however, the severance of the Mount from the mainland was the result, not of retrocession, but of the subsidence of the country, a rival theory which Mr. Pengelly still admits as possible, the former calculation would fail, and the only means of fixing the date of this severance would be supplied by the remains found in the forests that were carried down by that subsidence, and which are supposed to belong to the mammoth era. This mammoth era, we are told, is anterior to the lake-dwellings of Switzerland, and the kitchenmiddens of Denmark, for in neither of these have any remains of the mammoth been discovered. The mammoth, in fact, did not outlive the age of bronze, and before the end of that age, therefore, St. Michael's Mount must be supposed to have become an island.
    In all these discussions it is taken for granted that St. Michael's Mount was at one time unquestionably a "hoar rock in the wood," and that the land between the Mount and the, mainland was once covered by a forest which extended along the whole of the seaboard. That there are submerged forests along that seaboard is attested by sufficient geological evidence; but I have not been able to discover any proof of the unbroken continuity of that shore-forest, still less of the presence of vegetable remains in the exact locality which is of interest to us, namely between the Mount and the mainland. It is true that Dr. Borlase discovered the remains of trunks of trees on the 10th of January, 1757; but he tells us that these forest trees were not found round the Mount, but midway betwixt the piers of St. Michael's Mount and Penzance, that is to say, about one mile distant from the Mount; also, that one of them was a willow-tree with the bark on it, another a hazel-branch with the bark still fat and glossy. The place where these trees were found was three hundred yards below full-sea mark, where the water is twelve feet deep when the tide is in.
    Carew, also, at an earlier date, speaks of roots of mighty trees found in the sand about the Mount, but without giving the exact place. Lelant (1533-40) knows of "Spere Heddes, Axis for Warre, and Swerdes of Copper wrapped up in lynist, scant perishid," that had been found of late years near the Mount, in St. Hilary's parish, in tin works; but he places the land that had been devoured of the sea between Penzance and Mousehole, i.e. more than two miles distant from the Mount.
    The value of this kind of geological evidence must of course be determined by geologists. It is quite possible that the remains of trunks of trees may still be found on the very isthmus between the Mount and the mainland; but it is, to say the least, curious that, even in the absence of such stringent evidence, geologists should feel so confident that the Mount once stood on the mainland, and that exactly the same persuasion should have been shared by people long before the name of geology was known. There is a powerful spell in popular traditions, against which even men of science are not always proof, and is just possible that if the tradition of the "hoar rock in the wood" had not existed, no attempts would have been made to explain the causes that severed St. Michael's Mount from the mainland. But even then the question remains, How was it that people quite guiltless of geology should have framed the popular name of the Mount, and the popular tradition of its former connection with the mainland? Leaving, therefore, for the present all geological evidence out of view, it will be an interesting inquiry to find out, if possible, how people that could not have been swayed by any geological theories, should have been led to believe in the gradual insulation of St. Michael s Mount.
    The principal argument brought forward by non-geological writers in support of the former existence of a forest surrounding the Mount, is the Cornish name of St. Michael s Mount, Car a dowse in cowse, which in Cornish is said to mean "the hoar rock in the wood."']

[130] [Pengelly, Insulation of St Michael's Mount. From Muller, ibid. See note above.]

[131] [Muller, ibid., vol. 3, p. 335. 'Thus vanishes the testimony of William of Worcester, so often quoted by Cornish antiquarians, as to the dense forest by which St. Michael's Mount in Cornwall was once surrounded, and all the evidence that remains to substantiate the former presence of trees on and around the Cornish Mount is reduced to the name "the Hoar rock in the wood," given by William, and the Cornish names of Cara clowse in Cowse or Cara Cowz in Clowze, given by Carew. How much or how little dependence can be placed on old Cornish names of places and their supposed meaning has been shown before in the case of Marazion. Carew certainly did not understand Cornish, nor did the people with whom he had intercourse; and there is no doubt that he wrote down the Cornish names as best he could, and without any attempt at deciphering their meaning. He was told that "Cara clowse in Cowse" meant the "Hoar rock in the Wood," and he had no reason to doubt it.']

[133] [The Library, bk. 5. ch. 22. 'For over against the French shore, opposite to the Hercynian mountains (which are the greatest of any in Europe) there lie in the ocean many islands, the greatest of which is that which they call Britain, which antiently remained untouched, free from all force; for it was never known that either Bacchus, Hercules, or any of the antient heroes or princes, ever made any attempt upon it by force of arms: but Julius Caesar in our time (who by his great achievements gained the title of Divine) was the first (that any author makes mention of) that conquered that island, and compelled the Britons to pay tribute. But these things shall be more particularly treated of in their proper time; we shall now only say something concerning the island, and the tin that is found there.
    In form it is triangular, like Sicily, but the sides are unequal. It lies in an oblique line, over against the continent of Europe; so that the promontory called Cantium, next to the continent (they say) it about a hundred furlongs from the land: here the sea ebbs and flows: but the other point, called Belerium, is four days sail from the continent.
        The last, called Horcas, or Orcades, runs out far into the sea. The least of the sides facing the whole continent is seven thousand and five hundred furlongs in length; the second, stretching out itself all along from the sea to the highest point, is fifteen thousand furlong; and the last is twenty thousand: so that the whole compass of the island is forty-two thousand five hundred furlongs. The inhabitants are the original people thereof, and live to this time after their own antient manner and custom; for in fights they use chariots, as it is said the old Grecian heroes did in the Trojan war. They dwell in mean cottages, covered for the most part with reeds or sticks. In reaping of their corn, they cut off the ears from the stalk, and so house them up in repositories under ground; thence they take and pluck out the grains of as many of the oldest of them as may serve them for the day, and, after they have bruised the corn, make it into bread. They are of much sincerity and integrity, far from the craft and knavery of men among us; contented with plain and homely fare, strangers to the excess and luxury of rich men. The island is very populous, but of a cold climate, subject to frosts, being under the Arctic pole. They are governed by several kings and princes, who, for the most part, are at peace and amity one with another. But of their laws, and other things peculiar to this island, we shall treat more particularly when we come to Caesar's expedition into Britain.
    Now we shall speak something of the tin that is dug and gotten there. They that inhabit the British promontory of Belerium, by reason of their converse with merchants, are more civilised and courteous to strangers than the rest are. These are the people that make the tin, which with a great deal of care and labour they dig out of the ground; and that being rocky, the metal is mixed with some veins of earth, out of which they melt the metal, and then refine it; then they beat it into four-square pieces like to a dye, and carry it to a British isle near at hand, called Ictis. For at low tide, all being dry between them and the island, they convey over in carts abundance of tin in the mean time. But there is one thing peculiar to these islands which lie between Britain and Europe: for at full sea they appear to be islands, but at low water for a long way, they look like so many peninsulas. Hence the merchants transport the tin they buy of the inhabitants to France; and for thirty days journey, they carry it in packs upon horses' backs through France, to the mouth of the river Rhone. But thus much concerning tin. Now something remains to be said of amber.' Booth's tr., vol. 1, pp. 310-11.]

[135] [Muller, Chips From A German Workshop, vol. 3, pp. 322-5. 'In his paper read before the British Association at Manchester, Mr. Pengelly adduced that very name as irrefragable evidence that Cornish, i.e. a Celtic language, an Aryan language, was spoken in the extreme west of Europe about 20,000 years ago. In his more recent paper Mr. Pengelly has given up this position, and he considers it improbable that any philologer could now give a trustworthy translation of a language spoken 20,000 years ago. This may be or not; but before we build any hypothesis on that Cornish name, the first question which an historian has to answer is clearly this:
    What authority is there for that name? Where does it occur for the first time? and does it really mean what it is supposed to mean?
    Now the first mention of the Cornish name, as far as I am aware, occurs in Richard Carew's "Survey of Cornwall," which was published in 1602. It is true that Camden's "Britannia" appeared earlier, in 1586, and that Camden (p. 72), too, mentions "the Mons Michaelis, Dinsol olim, ut in libro Landavensi habetur, incolis Oareg Cowse? i.e. rupis cana." But it will be seen that he leaves out the most important part of the old name, nor can there be much doubt that Camden received his information about Cornwall direct from Carew, before Carew's "Survey of Cornwall" was published.
After speaking of "the countrie of Lionesse which the sea hath ravined from Cornwall betweene the lands end and the Isles of Scilley," Carew continues (p. 3), "Moreover, the ancient name of Saint Michael's Mount was Cara-dowse in Oowse, in English, The hoare Rocke in the Wood; which now is at everie floud incompassed by the Sea, and yet at some low ebbes, rootes of mightie trees are discryed in the sands about it. The like overflowing hath happened in Plymmouth Haven, and divers other places." Now while in this place Carew gives the name Oara-clowse in Cowse, it is very important to remark that on page 154, he speaks of it again as " Cara Cowz in Clowze, that is, the hoare rock in the wood."
    The original Cornish name, whether it was Cara dowse in Cowse, or Cara Cowz in Clowze, cannot be traced back beyond the end of the sixteenth century, for the Cornish Pilchard song in which the name like wise occurs is much more recent, at least in that form in which we possess it. The tradition, however, that St. Michael's Mount stood in a forest, and even the Saxon designation, "the Hoar rock in the wood," can be followed up to an earlier date.
    At least one hundred and twenty-five years before Carew s time, William of Worcester, though not mentioning the Cornish name, not only gives the Mount the name of "hoar rock of the wood," but states distinctly that St. Michael s Mount was formerly six miles distant from the sea, and surrounded by a dense forest: "PREDICTUS LOCUS OPACISSIMA PRIMO CLAUDESATUR SYLVA, AB OCEANO MILIARIBUS DISTANS SEX."
    As William of Worcester never mentions the Cornish name, it is not likely that his statement should merely be derived from the supposed meaning of Cara Cowz in Clowze, and it is but fair to admit that he may have drawn from a safer source of information. We must therefore inquire more closely into the credibility of this important witness. He is an important witness, for, if it were not for him, I believe we should never have heard of the insulation of St. Michael s Mount at all. The passage in question occurs in William of Worcester's Itinerary, the original MS. of which is preserved in Corpus Christi College at Cambridge. It was printed at Cambridge by James Nasmith, in the year 1778, from the original MS., but, as it would seem, without much care. William Botoner, or, as he is commonly called, William of Worcester, was born at Bristol in 1415, and educated at Oxford about 1434. He was a member of the Aula Cervina, which at that time belonged to Balliol College. His "Itinerarium" is dated 1478. It hardly deserves the grand title which it bears, "Itinerarium, sive liber memorabilium Will. W. in viagio de Bristol usque ad montem St. Michaelis." It is not a book of travels in our sense of the word, and it was hardly destined for the public in the form in which we possess it. It is simply a note book in which William entered anything that interested him during his journey; and it contains not only his own observations, but all sorts of extracts, copies, notices, thrown together without any connecting thread. He hardly tells us that he has arrived at St. Michael's Mount before he begins to copy a notice which he found posted up in the church. This notice informed all comers that Pope Gregory had remitted a third of their penances to all who should visit this church and give to it benefactions and alms. It can be fully proved that this notice, which was intended to attract pilgrims and visitors, repeats ipsissimis verlis the charter of Leofric, Bishop of Exeter, who exempted the church and convent from all episcopal jurisdiction. This was in the year 1088, when St. Michael's Mount was handed over by Robert, Earl of Mortain, half-brother of William the Conqueror, to the Abbey of St. Michel in Normandy. This charter may be seen in Dr. Oliver's "Monasticon Diocesis Exoniensis," 1846. The passage copied by William of Worcester from a notice in the church of St. Michael's Mount occurs at the end of the original charter: "Et omnibus illis qui illam ecclesiam suis cum beneficiis elemosinis expetierint et visitaverint, tertiam partem penitentiarum condonamus."
Note: In Gough's edition of Camden the name is given "Careg cowse in clowse, i.e. the heavy rock in the wood."']

[136] [Ibid., p. 326. 'But this short sentence of William contains one word which is of great importance for our purposes. He says that "the Hore-rock in the wood" was formerly called Tumba. Is there any evidence of this?
The name Tumba, as far as we know, belonged originally to Mont St. Michel in Normandy.']

[137] [Histories, bk. 3.116. 'Then again towards the North of Europe, there is evidently a quantity of gold by far larger than in any other land: as to how it is got, here again I am not able to say for certain, but it is said to be carried off from the griffins by Arimaspians, a one-eyed race of men. But I do not believe this tale either, that nature produces one-eyed men which in all other respects are like other men. However, it would seem that the extremities which bound the rest of the world on every side and enclose it in the midst, possess the things which by us are thought to be the most beautiful and the most rare.' Tr., Macauley.]