THE NATURAL GENESIS

NOTES TO SECTION 7

[1] [Chips From a German Workshop, vol. 2, p. 204. 'When the poets exclaim, "What wood, what tree was it, of which they made heaven and earth?" this means no more in the ancient language of religious poetry than, Out of what material were heaven and earth formed?']

[2] [Odyssey, 19, 163. See AE 1:101.]

[3] [Theogony, lines 30-35. 'So said the ready-voiced daughters of great Zeus, and they plucked and gave me a rod, a shoot of sturdy laurel, a marvellous thing, and breathed into me a divine voice to celebrate things that shall be and things there were aforetime; and they bade me sing of the race of the blessed gods that are eternally, but ever to sing of themselves both first and last. But why all this about oak or stone?' Tr., White.]

[4] [Introduction to the Science of Religion, (new ed.), p. 31. 'Ancient words and ancient thoughts, for both go together, have in the Old Testament not yet arrived at that stage of abstraction in which,, for instance, active powers, whether natural or supernatural, can be represented in any but a personal and more or teas human form. When we speak of a temptation from within or from without, it was more natural for the ancients to speak of a tempter, whether in a human or in an animal form; when we speak of the ever-present help of God, they call the Lord their rock, and their fortress, their buckler, and theirs a big tower. They even speak of 'the Rock that begat them' (Deut. xxxii. 18), though in a very different sense from that in which Homer speaks of the rock from whence man has sprung.']

[5] [Holmes, Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel Among the Heathen, p. 383. 'Formerly they, as well as all the other Hottentots, were a quiet and well-disposed people, but being deprived of their land, and robbed of their cattle by the Europeans, they became, in their turn, savage, and given to plunder. They perform a kind of religious worship to two rocks; the one representing a male and the other a female. When going out to hunt they implore the aid of these pretended deities, to provide them with food. First they go to the male rock and strike against it with a stick. If it sounds, they believe the report is heard in heaven, and that they will have success. But if they get nothing, they repair to the female rock, of which they pretend, that it is inhabited by a malicious spirit, and beat it well, upbraiding it, saying: "Why do you, by your hidden arms, cause all the game to be shot dead, so that we can find none. If they have succeeded, they extol the virtues of these stone gods."']

[6] [Callaway, Nursery Tales of the Amazulu, pp. 140-2. 'The Rock of Two-holes, a house where cannibals lived; but it was opened by the cunning of the owner; it was not opened by hands, it was opened by the mouth; that is, when a man came, he shouted near the doorway; but that doorway had nothing which a man could take hold of with his hand, and open it. Therefore it was opened by shouting the name of the house, and saying, "Rock of Untunjambili, open for me, that I may enter." But it could answer if it did not wish to open to that man, who asked it to open for him; it said in answer, "The Rock is not opened by children; it is opened by the swallows which fly in the air." And he perceived that it would not open to him, but remained closed. That, then, is what I have heard of the Rock of Untunjambili. Now we say, "So then that Rock means these houses of the whitemen." But there is still left one word, to wit, "That house is opened by the swallows:" it does not say it is opened by men; but these are opened by men. We do not understand what kind of a house that is which is opened by birds which fly in the air. It is evident; yet it is not very evident, whether it is these houses which we really see, or whether it is not they. It is not clear to us.'
Callaway notes on the same page:  'The Rock of Two holes has a considerable resemblance to the cave mentioned in the Forty Thieves and which was opened and shut by a word. It is curious that the Sesamum should figure in both stories; there as the word—"Open Sesame"—by which the rock was opened; here as the means employed by the girl in making her escape from the Amazulu. That was the abode of robbers; this of cannibal thieves. The power of opening solid bodies by a word or charm is mentioned in many tales of different countries. The Kama woman and her brothers, when pursued by the elephant, address a rock with these words, "Stone of my ancestors I divide for us." The rock divides, and they pass through. The elephant addresses it in like manner; the rode divides, and doses upon him again and kills him (Bleek's Hottentot Fables, p, 64.—"The Manito of the Mountain")
    "Opened wide his rocky doorways,
    Giving Pau-Fuk-Keewis shelter,"
when he was pursued by Hiawatha. But though Hiawatha
    "Cried in tones of thunder,
    Open! I am Hiawatha."
he "Found the doorways dosed against him,"
(Longfellow's Hiawatha,)—So Hatupatu, when he was nearly overtaken by Kurangaituku, ''repeated his charm, 'O rock, open for me, open,' The rock opened, and he hid himself in it." (Grey. Op. cit., p, 188.)
    Ogilby informs us that there was a hollow sycamore tree at El Mattharia (Materea, Heliopolis) respecting which the Turks related the following legend:—"This tree by a miracle was split in two parts, between which the Virgin Mary, with her child Jesus and Joseph, put themselves to disappoint the persecuting pursuers whereinto they were no sooner entered, but it immediately by like miracle closed again, till the Herodian child-slaughterers passed by, and then suddenly reopened to deliver its charge, so as at this day it is to be seen." (Ogilby's Africa, p. 73.)
    In the tale "Dummburg," there is the account of a door leading to concealed treasures, which was opened and dosed by the words, "Little door, open!" and "little door, shut!" (Thorpe, Yule-tide Stories, p. 482.).'
See also AE 1:357.]

[7] ['The Origin of Animal Worship,' FR, 7, 542. 'The origin of other totems, equally strange if not even stranger, is similarly accounted for, though otherwise unaccountable. One of the New Zealand chiefs claimed as his progenitor the neighbouring great mountain, Tongariro. This seemingly whimsical belief becomes intelligible when we observe how easily it may have arisen from a nickname. Do we not ourselves sometimes speak figuratively of a tall, fat man as a mountain of flesh? And among a people prone to speak in still more concrete terms, would it not happen that a chief remarkable for his great bulk would be nicknamed after the highest mountain within sight, because he towered above other men as this did above surrounding hills? Such an occurrence is not simply possible, but probable.']

[8] [Gal. 4:25-26. 'For this Agar is mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth to Jerusalem which now is, and is in bondage with her children.
    But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all.']

[9] [Eitel, Feng Shui, p. 53. 'But the most malicious influence under which Hongkong suffers is caused by that curious rock on the edge of the hill near Wanchai. It is distinctly seen from Queen's Road East, and foreigners generally see in it Cain and Abel, Cain slaying his brother. The Chinese take the rock to represent a female figure which they call the bad woman, and they firmly and seriously believe that all the immorality of Hongkong, all the recklessness and vice of Taip'ingshan are caused by that wicked rock.' Or p. 43 of rev'd ed. of 1873.]

[10] [Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, vol. 3, p. 81. 'The Navajos, living north of the Pueblos, say that at one time all the nations, Navajos, Pueblos, Coyoteros, and white people, lived together, underground in the heart of a mountain near the river San Juan. Their only food was meat, which they had in abundance, for all kinds of game were closed up with them in their cave; but their light was dim and only endured for a few hours each day. There were happily two dumb men among the Navajos, flute-players who enlivened the darkness with music. One of these, striking by chance on the roof of the limbo with his flute, brought out a hollow sound, upon which the elders of the tribes determined to bore in the direction whence the sound came. The flute was then set up against the roof, and the Raccoon sent up the tube to dig a way out; but he could not. Then the Moth-worm mounted into the breach, and bored and bored till he found himself suddenly on the outside of the mountain and surrounded by water.']

[11] [Brett, The Indian Tribes of Guiana, p. 375. 'Of similar origin are the traditions relating to that singular basaltic column called "Pure-piapa," or the "headless tree" (of which Schomburgh has given a representation), and some others of the same kind, which are supposed to have been cut down by the Great Spirit, and by His touch converted into stone.']

[12] [Unable to trace.]

[13] [Unable to trace.]

[14] [Muller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (?), p. 109.]

[15] [Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 303. 'Among the natives of the Philippines also we find the worship of trees. They believed that the world at first consisted only of sky and water, and between these two a glede (hawk); which, weary with flying about, and finding no place to rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that it should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in which the glede might settle and leave them at peace. Mankind, they said, sprang out of a large cane with two joints; that floating about in the water was at length thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede, as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill; the man came out of one joint, the woman out of the other. These were soon after married by the consent of their god, Bathala Meycapal, which caused the first trembling of the earth; and from thence are descended the different nations of the world.' From Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 297.]

[16] [Prose Edda, ch. 5. 'As Bor's sons went along the sea-strand, they found two trees. These trees they took up and made men of them. The first gave them spirit and life; the second endowed them with reason and power of motion; and the third gave them form, speech, hearing and eyesight. They gave them clothes and names; the man they called Ask, and the woman Embla. From them all mankind is descended, and a dwelling-place was given them under Midgard.' Anderson' tr.]

[17] [Erman, Travels in Siberia, vol. 1, p. 464. '"There was pointed out to us," says Erman, "as an important monument of an early epoch in the history of Beresov, a larch about fifty feel high, and now, through age flourishing only at the top, which has been preserved in the churchyard. In former times, when the Ostyak rulers dwelt in Beresov, this tree was the particular object of their adoration. In this, as in many other instances, observed by the Russians, the peculiar sacredness of the tree was due to the singularity of its form and growth, for about six feet from the ground the trunk separated into two equal parts, and again united. It was the custom of the superstitious natives to place costly offerings of every kind in the opening of the trunk; nor have they yet abandoned the usage."' From Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 297.]

[18] [Koran (?) I can find no ref. to match this quotation from the Koran, that is, if it is from there at all.]

[19] [Knowledge, August 4, 1882.]

[20] [Mariette, The Monuments of Upper Egypt, p. 147. 'The inhabitants of Thebes interred at Drah-abou'l-neggah, the necropolis of that early period, were frequently negroes. The coffins are formed of the hollowed trunk of a peculiar kind of tree which is now no longer met with except in the Soudan. All this seems to indicate that the renovation of Egyptian society and the founding of Thebes constitute a political fact which points to an invasion from the south.']

[21] [Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, pp. 280-3.]

[22] [Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, p. 615. Unable to trace.]

[23] [Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 59.]

[24] [1 Pet. 2:24. 'Who his own self bare our sins in his own body on the tree, that we, being dead to sins, should live unto righteousness: by whose stripes ye were healed.']

[25] [Pierret, 'Libation Vase of Osor-ur,' RP, 12, 77.]

[26] [Book of Enoch. ch. 31.]

[27] [Plutarch, Of Isis and Osiris, ch. 16.]

[28] [Creuzer, Symbolik, by Guigniaut, Religions de l'Antiquité, vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 208-9. 'On raconte fort diversement la mort de Crichna. Une tradition remarquable et avérée le fait périr sur un bois fatal (un arbre), où il fut cloué d'un coup de flèche, et du haut duquel il prédit les maux qui allaient fondre sur la terre, dans le Cali-youga. En effet, trente ou trente-six atis apres, commenca cet age de crimes et de misères. Une autre tradition ajoute que le corps de l'homme-dieu fut changé en un tronc de Tchandana ou sandal; et qu'ayant été jeté dans l'Yamouna, près de Mathoura, il passa de là dans les eaux sainte du Gange, qui le portèrent sur la côte d'Orica: il y est encore adoré à Djagannatha ou Jagrenat, lieu fameux par les pélerinages, comme le symbole de la reproduction et de la vie.']

[29] [Maurice, Indian Antiquities, (1812 ed.), vol. 6, p. 49. 'Now, it is a fact, not less remarkable than well-attested, that the Druids in their Groves were accustomed to select the most stately and beautiful tree as an emblem of the deity they adored; and, having cut off the side branches, they affixed two of the largest of them to the highest part of the trunk, in such a manner that those branches, extended on each side like the arms of a man, and together with the body, presented to the spectator the appearance of a huge cross; and on the bark, in various places, was actually inscribed the letter Thau. On the right arm was inscribed Hesus (their Mars), and on the left Belenus, and on the middle of the trunk Tharanis.']

[30] [Skene, Four Ancient Books of Wales, vol. 1, p. 269. 'GOD preserve the heavens
    From a flood wide spreading.
    The first surging billow
    Has rolled over the sea-beach.
    What tree is greater
    Than he, Daronwy?
    I know not for a refuge
    Around the proud circle of heaven,
    That there is a mystery which is greater.']

[31] [Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 10. 'And now the rising tree her womb invests,
    Now shooting upwards still, invades her breasts,
    And shades the neck; when weary with delay,
    She sunk her head within, and met it half the way.
    And tho' with outward shape she lost her sense,
    With bitter tears she wept her last offence;
    And still she weeps, nor sheds her tears in vain;
    For still the precious drops her name retain.
    Mean-time the mis-begotten infant grows,
    And ripe for birth, distends with deadly throes
    The swelling rind, with unavailing strife,
    To leave the wooden womb, and pushes into life.
    The mother-tree, as if oppress'd with pain,
    Writhes here, and there, to break the bark, in vain;
    And, like a lab'ring woman, wou'd have pray'd,
    But wants a voice to call Lucina's aid:
    The bending bole sends out a hollow sound,
    And trickling tears fall thicker on the ground.
    The mild Lucina came uncall'd, and stood
    Beside the struggling boughs, and heard the groaning wood;
    Then reach'd her midwife-hand to speed the throes,
    And spoke the pow'rful spells, that babes to birth disclose.
    The bark divides, the living load to free,
    And safe delivers the convulsive tree.
    The ready nymphs receive the crying child,
    And wash him in the tears the parent plant distill'd.
    They swath'd him with their scarfs; beneath him spread
    The ground with herbs; with roses rais'd his head.
    The lovely babe was born with ev'ry grace,
    Ev'n envy must have prais'd so fair a face:
    Such was his form, as painters when they show
    Their utmost art, on naked loves bestow:
    And that their arms no diff'rence might betray,
    Give him a bow, or his from Cupid take away.
    Time glides along with undiscover'd haste,
    The future but a length behind the past;
    So swift are years. The babe, whom just before
    His grandsire got, and whom his sister bore;
    The drop, the thing, which late the tree inclos'd,
    And late the yawning bark to life expos'd;
    A babe, a boy, a beauteous youth appears.' Dryden and Pope's tr.]

[32] [Calmet's Great Dictionary of the Holy Bible, pl. 51, fig. 1, 2, 3.]

[33] [Silvestre De Sacy, 'Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque du Roi,' in MAIB, 1787.]

[34] [Adversus Gentes, bk. 5.16: 'For what is the meaning of that pine which on fixed days you always bring into the sanctuary of the mother of the gods? Is it not in imitation of that tree, beneath which the raging and ill-fated youth laid hands upon himself, and [which] the parent of the gods consecrated to relieve her sorrow?' Trs., Campbell and Bryce.]

[35] [Sayce, 'Accadian Poem on Seven Evil Spirits,' RP, 9, 141. See p. 146.]

[36] [Ogilby, Africa, Being an Accurate Description of the Regions of Ægypt, Barbary, Lybia, and Billedulgerid, p. 73. From Callaway's Nursery Tales. See note 6 above.]

[37] [The Koran, ch. 37. 'Shall we die any other than our first death; or do we suffer any punishment? Verily this is great felicity: for the obtaining a felicity like this let the labourers labour. Is this a better entertainment, or the tree of al Zakkum? Verily we have designed the same for an occasion of dispute unto the unjust. It is a tree which issueth from the bottom of hell: the fruit thereof resembleth the heads of devils; and the damned shall eat of the same, and shall fill their bellies therewith; and there shall be given them thereon a mixture of filthy and boiling water to drink: afterwards shall they return into hell.' Tr., Sale.
Note l: '"How different is the tree al Zakkum from the abode of Eden! We have planted it for the torment of the wicked."'—Savary.
Note m: 'Or of serpents ugly to behold; the original word signifies both.'
Note n: 'Some suppose that the entertainment mentioned will be the welcome given the damned before they enter that place; and others, that they will be suffered to come out of hell from time to time, to drink their scalding liquor.']

[38] [Luke 17:6. 'And the Lord said, If ye had faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye might say unto this sycamine tree, Be thou plucked up by the root, and be thou planted in the sea; and it should obey you.']

[39] [Travels in Egypt and Nubia, vol. 1, p. 79.]

[40] [Across Africa, vol. 1, p. 119. 'Another story had a curious resemblance to that of the upas-tree. At a certain place in Urguru, a division of Unyamwezi, are three large trees with dark-green foliage, the leaves being broad and smooth. A travelling party of Warori, on seeing them, thought how excellent a shelter they would afford, and camped under them; but the next morning all were dead, and to this day their skeletons and the ivory they were carrying are said to remain there to attest their sad fate.' Or p. 319, single ed.]

[41] [Brett, The Indian Tribes of Guiana, pp. 380-1. 'This was the first attempt on earth at cultivation.
    "All assisted willingly except Iwarrika'' (the monkey), "who being very lazy and full of mischief, avoided his share of the labour, and by his tricks thwarted the efforts of the others. As he would do no good, Sigu, to keep him from doing harm, at last sent him to a stream to fetch water, giving him only a 'quake,' or open-work basket, to bring it in.
    "The stump of the wondrous tree was found to be hollow, and the cavity filled with water, containing the fry of every variety of fresh-water fish, (Up to that period fishes had only existed in the great salt sea.) Sigu determined to stock with them all the streams and lakes upon earth, in so just a manner that every variety of choice fish should be found in each." But this intention,—so equitable and benevolent to future generations,—was unexpectedly frustrated. "The water in the cavity, being connected with a subterraneous fountain or reservoir, began to overflow. To stop its increase, he hastily constructed a closely-woven basket of the kind called 'wallamba' (or warrampa), with which he covered the stump, and this, by some magical power, restrained the swelling fountain within.
    "Iwarrika, the mischievous monkey, tired of his profitless task, stealthily returned. Seeing the inverted wallamba, he imagined that it covered the choicest fruit, specially reserved for his master's refreshment when the labour of planting should be over. To monkey-nature the temptation this offered was irresistible. There were the finest delicacies, and no one near! Such a chance might never happen again. So he hastily forced up the magic cover, and the next instant was gasping and struggling in abject terror and astonishment, being overturned and nearly drowned by a mighty torrent which burst forth, and from a rapidly enlarging aperture overspread the earth around."']

[42] [Edda Sæmundar hinns Froda.]

[43] [General History of the Things of New Spain.]

[44] ['The Relación of Fray Ramón Pane,' in Fernando Colombo's Vita & de'Fatti dell'Ammiraglio d. Christoforo Colombo, in Pinkerton, Collection of Voyages, vol. 12, p. 87. 'A curious and suggestive description bearing on this point is given in Friar Roman Pane's account of the religion of the Antilles islanders, drawn up by order of Columbus. Certain trees, he declares, were believed to send for sorcerers, to whom they gave orders how to shape their trunks into idols, and these 'cemi' being then installed in temple-huts, received prayer and inspired their priests with oracles.' From Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 216.]

[45] [Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa,  p. 59. 'As the Bushmen have the reputation of curing the wounds of this poison, I asked how this was effected. They said that they administer the caterpillar itself in combination with fat; they also rub fat into the wound, saying that "the N'gwa wants fat, and, when it does not find it in the body, kills the man: we give it what it wants, and it is content:" a reason which will commend itself to the enlightened among ourselves.']

[46] [Burton, Wit and Wisdom from West Africa, pp. 205, 243.
Bosman, Description of the Coast of Guinea, in Pinkerton, Collection of Voyages, vol. 16, p. 500. 'Africa shows as well-defined examples. The negro woodman cuts down certain trees in fear of the anger of their inhabiting demons, but he finds his way out of the difficulty by a sacrifice to his own good genius, or, when he is giving the first cuts to the great asorin-tree, and its indwelling spirit comes out to chase him, he cunningly drops palm-oil on the ground, and makes his escape while the spirit is licking it up. A negro was once worshiping a tree with an offering of food, when some one pointed out to him that the tree did not eat; the negro answered, "O the tree is not fetish, the fetish is a spirit and invisible, but he has descended into this tree. Certainly he cannot devour our bodily food, but he enjoys its spiritual part and leaves behind the bodily which we see." Tree-worship is largely prevalent in Africa, and much of it may be of this fully animistic kind; as where in Whidah Bosman says that "the trees, which are the gods of the second rank of this country, are only prayed to and presented with offerings in time of sickness, more especially fevers, in order to restore the patients to health;" or where in Abyssinia the Gallas made pilgrimage from all quarters to their sacred tree Wodanabe on the banks of the Hawash, worshipping it and praying to it for riches, health, life, and every blessing.' Both from Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 216.]

[47] [Hieroglyphica, bk. 1:30. 'To denote ancient descent they depict a BUNDLE OF PAPYRUS, and by this they intimate the primeval food; for no one can find the beginning of food or generation.'
See also BB 2:65.]

[48] [Rev. 10:9-10. 'And I went unto the angel, and said unto him, Give me the little book. And he said unto me, Take it, and eat it up; and it shall make thy belly bitter, but it shall be in thy mouth sweet as honey.
    And I took the little book out of the angel's hand, and ate it up; and it was in my mouth sweet as honey: and as soon as I had eaten it, my belly was bitter.']

[49] [Hieroglyphica, bk. 1:38. 'To denote the Egyptian letters, or a sacred scribe, or a boundary, they delineate INK, and a SIEVE, and a REED, and they thus symbolise the Egyptian letters, because by means of these things all writings among the Egyptians are executed: for they write with a reed and nothing else: and they depict a SIEVE, because the sieve being originally an instrument for making bread is constructed of reed; and they thereby intimate that every one who has a subsistence should learn the letters, but that one who has not should practise some other art. And hence it is that among them education is called SBO, which when interpreted signifies sufficient food. Also they symbolize by these a sacred scribe, because he judges of life and death. For there is among the sacred scribes a sacred book called AMBRES, by which they decide respecting any one who is lying sick, whether he will live or not, ascertaining it from the recumbent posture of the sick person. And a boundary, because he who has learnt his letters has arrived at a tranquil harbour of existence, no longer wandering among the evils of this life.']

[50] [Ananda Tantram, ch. 6:13, quoted in Sellon, Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus, p. 70. See Sellon.]

[51] [Ananda Tantram, ch. 7. As above note.]

[52] [Quoted below.]

[53] [Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists or Banquet of the Learned, 3:6. 'With respect to Figs.—”The fig-tree, says Magnus, (for I will not allow any one to take what I have to say about figs out of my mouth, not if I were to be hanged for it, for I am. most devilishly fond of figs, and I will say what occurs to me;) "the fig-tree, my friends, was the guide to men to lead them to a more civilized life. And this is plain from the fact that the Athenians call the place where it was first discovered The Sacred Fig; and the fruit from it they call hegeteria, that is to say, "the guide," because that was the first to be discovered of all the fruits now in cultivation. Now there are many species of figs; "there is the Attic sort, which Antiphanes speaks of in his Synonymes; and when ho is praising the land of Attica, he says—
    A. What fruits this land produces!
    Superior, O Hipponiens, to the world.
    What honey, what bread, what figs!
    Hipp. It does, by Jove!
    Bear wondrous figs.
    And Taistrtia, in his "Attics," says that it was forbidden to export out of Attica the figs which grew in that country, in order that the inhabitants might have the exclusive enjoyment of them. And as many people were detected in sending them away surreptitiously, those who laid informations against them before the judges were then first called sycophants.
    And Alexia says, in his "The Poet"—
    The name of sycophant is one which does
    Of right apply to every wicked person;
    For figs when added to a name might show
    Whether the man was good and just and pleasant;
    But now when a sweet name is given a rogue,
    It makes us doubt why this should be the case.
And Philomnestus, in his treatise on the Festival of Apollo at Rhodes, which is called the Sminthian festival, says—"Since the sycophant got his name from these circumstances, because at that time there were fines and taxes imposed upon figs and oil and wine, by the produce of which imposts they found money for the public expenses; they called those who exacted these fines and laid these informations sycophants, which was very natural, selecting those who were accounted the most considerable of the citizens.' Yong's tr., vol. 1, p. 126.]

[54] [Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. 1, p. 428. 'The Aborigines of the Murray believe not in death—in annihilation. They believe that when the body becomes motionless—in our sense of the word, dead—it may rise again and appear perhaps in the form of a white. But they have a strange account of the occasion on which death—as the word is used in the ordinary sense—was first brought into the world.
    The first created man and woman were told not to go near a certain tree in which a Bat (Bon-nel-ya) lived. The Bat was not to be disturbed. One day, however, the woman (Nenya) was gathering firewood, and she went near the tree in which the Bat lived. The Bat flew away, and after that came death. Many amongst the Aborigines died after that.']

[55] [Hieroglyphica, bk. 2:53. 'When they would represent a woman suckling and bringing up her children well, they again portray a BAT WITH TEETH AND BREASTS; for this is the only winged creature which has teeth and breasts.']

[56] [Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race, vol. 1, p. 80. 'Among other adornments of the Polynesian paradise, the "Kalana i Hau-ola," there grew the Ulu kapu a Kane, "the tabued bread-fruit tree," and the Ohio, Hemolele, "the sacred apple-tree." The priests of the olden time are said to have held that the tabued fruit of these trees were in some manner connected with the trouble and death of Kumu-honua and Lalo-honua, the first man and woman, and hence in the ancient chants the former was called "Kane Laa-uli, Kumu-uli, Kulu-ipo," the fallen chief, he who fell from, by, or on account of the tree, the mourner, &c, or names of similar import.
    I have only been able to obtain a portion of a Hawaiian chant which bears upon the subject of those trees and the fall of man, as connected with the eating of their fruit; and I am inclined to think it far more ancient than the comments of the priests on the occurrence therein referred to. It may be rendered in English, viz.:
    "O Kane-Laa-'uli, uli, uli,
    Dead by the feast, feast, feast,
    Dead by the oath, by the law, law, law,
    Truly, thus indeed, dead, dead, dead.
    O! vanish the stars!
    O! vanish the light!
    In company with
    The moon, moon, moon,
    And cursed be my hand,
    Cut off be my course!
    —E Kane-Laa-'uli, uli, uli,
    E Kane-Laa-huli, huli, huli,
    E Kane-Laa-make, make, make,
    Dead are you, you, you,
    By Kane thy god, god, god,
    Dead by the law, law, law,
    Truly, thus indeed, dead, dead, dead,
    O Kane-Laa-'uli, uli, uli,
    O Kane disobeying the gods, gods, gods,
    Kane (returned) to dust, dust, dust."'
Ibid., p. 82. 'Here follow the new names of "Fallen," "Tree-eater," "Tree-upset," "Mourner," "Lamentation," "Repenting," &c; and it is, moreover, curious to observe that, whereas in enumerating the names of the first pair before their misfortune, the chant places the husband's name before that of the wife, in the list of names after the fall the names of the wife precede those of the husband, who becomes, as it were, an intensified echo of the former. The tradition adds, that the first pair lived in "Kalana i Hauola," until they were driven out from there by Ka-aaia-nuhea-nui a Kane, "the large white bird of Kane."']

[57] [Bleek, Reynard the Fox in South Africa, ch. 39. See p. 82.]

[58] [Tsuni-Goam, p. 103. 'I myself have eaten of the fruit of the so-called wild raisin tree, or ‡oûs, and the consequence was that I had an attack of dysentery. The natives having no medicine often succumb to such attacks.']

[59] [Ibid., p. 132. 'We have thus hei-b, a pole, a stick, a staff, a collection of trees; hei-s, fem. a tree, and hei-ï, a tree in general, a piece of wood, or a shrub.']

[60] [Ibid., p. 73. '"Alas! tü ..." (imitation of the Lion's voice) "the Son of the Mimosa" (or, Mimosa-root) "has con—quered me!" (again imitation of the Lion's voice).']

[61] [Ibid., p. 82. 'And also before they lie down to sleep, they set these roots alight, and murmur, "My grandfather's root, bring sleep on the eyes of the lion and the leopard and the hyena. Make them blind, that they cannot find us, and cover their noses, that they cannot smell us out."']

[62] [Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religions and Institutions of India, vol. 5, p. 90. 'Thus in vi. 47, 3, it is said: "This (soma), when drunk, impels my voice; it awakes the ardent thought," ay am me pltah udiyartti vacham ayam manlsham usatim ajlya. In viii. 48, 3; its elevating effect is still more distinctly told in these words, apama somam amritah abhuma aganma jyotir avidamc devan kim nunam asman krinavad aratih kim u dhurttir amrita marttyasya, which may be rendered as follows:
    "We've quaffed the soma bright,
    And are immortal grown;
    We've entered into light,
    And all the gods have known.
    What mortal now can harm,
    Or foeman vex us more?
    Through thee, beyond alarm,
    Immortal god, we soar."'
This is also quoted by Grant, The Magical Revival, p. 88.]

[63] [Deut. 14:26. 'And thou shalt bestow that money for whatsoever thy soul lusteth after, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine, or for strong drink, or for whatsoever thy soul desireth: and thou shalt eat there before the LORD thy God, and thou shalt rejoice, thou, and thine household.']

[64] [Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 170. 'Tiki sits at the threshold of a very long house with reed sides, in Avaiki, i.e. the shades. All around are planted shrubs and flowers of undying fragrance and beauty. This guardian of the Rarotongan Paradise is ever patiently awaiting new arrivals from the upper world. It was customary at Rarotonga to bury with the dead the head and kidneys of a hog, a split cocoa-nut, and a root of "kava" (piper mythisticum), to enable the spirit-traveller to make an acceptable offering to Tiki, who thus propitiated, admits the giver inside his dwelling. Here, sitting at their ease, eating, drinking, dancing, or sleeping, are assembled the brave of past ages, ready to welcome the new comer, and to relate over again the story of their sanguinary achievements performed in life.']

[65] [Gen. 3:5-6. 'For God doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil.
    And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave also unto her husband with her; and he did eat.']

[66] [Plutarch, Of Isis and Osiris, ch. 6.]

[67] [Gubernatis, La Mythologie des Plantes, vol. 2, p. 357. 'Mais, dans la Petite-Russie, le tabac passe pour une plante maudite; les Raskolniks l'appellent herbe du diable. On offre du tabac aux lieschi «génies, esprits, démons de la forét». Jusqu'au temps de Pierre le Grand, il était défendu de priser du tabac; aux transgresseurs, on coupait le nez. Dans la Petite-Russie, on raconte cette légende: Les Tchumaches rencontrèrent jadis une femme idolátre dans une pose indécente qui les attirait. La chasteté des Tchumaches courait un grand danger. Dieu parut et leur ordonna de mettre à  mort la séductrice. Les Tchumaches obéirent et ensevelirent la femme idolátre. Le mari de cette femme plante une branche sur son tombeau; la branche devint une plante aux larges feuilles. Les Tchumaches, passant par-là, remarquárent que l'idolátre détachait des feuilles et en remplissait sa pipe. Ils l'imitárent, et y prennent un tel plaisir, qu'ils ne cessent de fumer, jusqu'au jour où, aprés la fumée, le feu viendra consumer ces impies. La plante qui donne de la fumée a été considérée comme une figure du diable lui-méme, lequel, aprés avoir passé dans un endroit, y laisse des traces, c'est-á-dire de la fumée et une mauvaise odeur.']

[68] [King, Antiquities of Mexico, vol. 6, p. 203.]

[69] [Vedas, 1. 91, 14; 1, 164, 6; 7, 86, 3; 9, 37, 6; 72, 6.]

[70] [Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language of the Parsis, p. 290. 'These two names, kavi and karapan, designate in the fullest sense all the spiritual guides of the professors of the Deva religion, who tried to put down the adherents of the Ahuramazda religion, and we necessarily find, therefore, a bad meaning attached to them in the Gathas. This appears the more strange, as the word kavi itself forms part of the names of highly celebrated personages of Iranian antiquity, such as Kavi Husrava (Kai Khusro), Kavi Kavata (Kai Kabad), Kavi Vishtaspa (Kai Gushtasp), &c., and has become, in its derived adjectival form "Kayanian," the designation of a whole dynasty of the ancient Bactrian rulers.']

[71] [Zamyad Yasht, quoted in Haug, ibid., p. 216. 'In the following sections of this Yasht we find always invoked "the mighty glory which was peculiar to the Kavis" (the chiefs of the Iranian community in ancient times, mostly before Zoroaster). Ahuramazda produced it at the time of creating all that is good, bright, shining, and propagating life. It attached itself generally to one of the great heroes of antiquity, such as Thraetaona, Yima, &c., and enabled him to achieve great feats. This heavenly glory is essential for causing the dead to rise at the end of the world.']

[72] [Ibid.,, p. 291. 'In one passage (Rig. veda, v. 34, 3) Kavdsakha is even called a maghavd, by which name the disciples and earliest followers of Zarathushtra are denoted in the Gathas. Indra is there said to turn out the Maghava, who follows the Kava party, from his possession, which refers to the settlements (gaethas) of the Iranians.']

[73] [Haug, ibid., quoting v. 16, p. 169. 'Kava Vishtaspa obtained, through the possession of the spiritual power (maga), and through the verses which the good mind had revealed, that knowledge which Ahuramazda Himself, as the cause of truth, has invented.']

[74] [Colombo, Vita, in Pinkerton, Collection of Voyages, vol. 12, ch. 62. 'One of these means is the use of drugs. In the West India Islands at the time of the discovery, Columbus describes the religious ceremony of placing a platter containing 'cohoba' powder on the head of the idol, the worshippers then snuffing up this powder through a cane with two branches put to the nose. Pane further describes how the native priest, when brought to a sick man, would put himself in communication with the spirits by thus snuffing cohoba, "which makes him drunk, that he knows not what he does, and so says many extraordinary things, wherein they affirm that they are talking with the cemis, and that from them it is told them that the infirmity came."' From Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 416.]

[75] [Pane, ibid., ch. 15. From Tylor, as above note.]

[76] [Is. 57:5. 'Enflaming yourselves with idols under every green tree, slaying the children in the valleys under the clifts of the rocks?']

[77] [Jer. 3:6. 'The LORD said also unto me in the days of Josiah the king, Hast thou seen that which backsliding Israel hath done? she is gone up upon every high mountain and under every green tree, and there hath played the harlot.']

[78] [Hos. 4:13. 'They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery.']

[79] [Is. 66:17. 'They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the gardens behind one tree in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed together, saith the LORD.']

[80] [Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship, pl. 98.]

[81] [Zech. 9:7. 'And I will take away his blood out of his mouth, and his abominations from between his teeth: but he that remaineth, even he, shall be for our God, and he shall be as a governor in Judah, and Ekron as a Jebusite.']

[82] [Sellon, Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus, quoting the Tantras. See text here.]

[83] [Irenaeus, Against Heresies, bk. 1, ch. 13.2. 'Pretending to consecrate cups mixed with wine, and protracting to great length the word of invocation, he contrives to give them a purple and reddish colour, so that Charis, who is one of those that are superior to all things, should be thought to drop her own blood into that cup through means of his invocation, and that thus those who are present should be led to rejoice to taste of that cup, in order that, by so doing, the Charis, who is set forth by this magician, may also flow into them. Again, handing mixed cups to the women, he bids them consecrate these in his presence. When this has been done, he himself produces another cup of much larger size than that which the deluded woman has consecrated, and pouring from the smaller one consecrated by the woman into that which has been brought forward by himself, he at the same time pronounces these words: "May that Charis who is before all things, and who transcends all knowledge and speech, fill thine inner man, and multiply in thee her own knowledge, by sowing the grain of mustard seed in thee as in good soil." Repeating certain other like words, and thus goading; on the wretched woman [to madness], he then appears a worker of wonders when the large cup is seen to have been filled out of the small one, so as even to overflow by what has been obtained from it. By accomplishing several other similar things, he has completely deceived many, and drawn them away after him.' ANCL, 5, 52.]

[84] [Birch, Gallery of Antiquities, p. 17. 'Her titles as the Oerihek were. The chief of victories with her benefits, (?) the force of the gods, the great astonisher of all mankind, and The Mistress of Memphis, identifying her with Pasht.']

[85] [Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus. See p. 24.]

[86] [For Clement of Alexander, poss. in Exhortation to the Heathen, where he says: 'This is even now prohibited to those who are initiated, lest they should appear to mimic the weeping goddess. The indigenous inhabitants then occupied Eleusis: their names were Baubo, and Dusaules, and Triptolemus; and besides, Eumolpus and Eubouleus. Triptolemus was a herdsman, Eumolpus a shepherd, and Eubouleus a swineherd; from whom came the race of the Eumolpidas and that of the Heralds—a race of Hierophants—who flourished at Athens.
    Well, then (for I shall not refrain from the recital), Baubo having received Demeter hospitably, reaches to her a refreshing draught; and on her refusing it, not having any inclination to drink (for she was very sad), and Baubo having become annoyed, thinking herself slighted, uncovered her secret parts, and exhibited them to the goddess. Demeter is delighted at the sight, and takes, though with difficulty, the draught—pleased, I repeat, at the spectacle. These are the secret mysteries of the Athenians.' See ANCL, 4, 52.
Arnobius, Adversus Gentes, bk. 5, 25.  'In her wanderings on that quest, she reaches the confines of Eleusis as well as other countries—that is the name of a canton in Attica. At that time these parts were inhabited by aborigines^ named Baubo, Triptolemus, Eubuleus, Eumolpus, Dysaules: Triptolemus, who yoked oxen; Dysaules, a keeper of goats; Eubuleus, of swine; Eamolpus, of sheep from whom also flows the race of Eumolpidse, and [from whom] is derived that name famous among the Athenians, and those who afterwards flourished as caduceatores, hierophants, and criers. So, then, that Baubo who, we have said, dwelt in the canton of Eleusis, receives hospitably Ceres, worn out with ills of many kinds, hangs about her "with pleasing attentions, beseeches her not to neglect to refresh her body, brings to quench her thirst wine thickened with spelt, which the Greeks term cyceon. The goddess in her sorrow turns away from the kindly offered services, and rejects [them]; nor does her misfortune suffer her to remember what the body always requires. Baubo, on the other hand, begs and exhorts her—as is usual in such calamities—not to despise her humanity; Ceres remains utterly immoveable, and tenaciously maintains an invincible austerity. But when this was done several times, and her fixed purpose could not be worn out by any attentions, Baubo changes her plans, and determines to make merry by strange jests her whom she could not win by earnestness. That part of the body by which women both bear children and obtain the name of mothers, this she frees from longer neglect: she makes it assume a purer appearance, and become smooth like a child, not yet hard and rough with hair. In this wise she returns to the sorrowing goddess; and while trying the common expedients by which it is usual to break the force of grief, and moderate it, she uncovers herself, and baring her groins, displays all the parts which decency hides; and then the goddess fixes her eyes upon these, and is pleased with the strange form of consolation. Then becoming more cheerful after laughing, she takes and drinks off the draught spurned [before], and the indecency of a shameless action forced that which Baubo's modest conduct was long unable to win.' See ANCL, 19, 249-50.
Unable to trace in Theodoret.]

[87] [The History, bk. 2, v. 2-3. 'From those islands he went across the open sea to the coast of Syria. At Cyprus curiosity led him to visit the temple of the Paphian Venus, famous for the worship paid by the inhabitants, and the conflux of strangers to it. It will not perhaps be tedious to trace the origin of its worship, to describe the situation of the temple, and the form of the goddess, differing as it does entirely from what is seen in any other place.
    The founder of the temple, if we believe ancient tradition, was king Ærias; a name ascribed by some writers to the goddess herself. According to a more recent opinion, the temple was built and dedicated by king Cinyras, on the spot where the goddess, after emerging from her native waves, was gently wafted to the shore: the science and practice of divination were imported by Thamyras, the Cilician, and it was settled by mutual compact, between the priest and Cinyras, the king of the island, that the sacerdotal function should be held by the descendants of their respective families. In process of time, the race of Thamyras, willing that the sovereign should be distinguished by a superior prerogative, resigned the conduct of the mysteries, of which their ancestors were the founders. A priest of the royal line only is consulted. For victims, animals of every species are allowed, at the option of the votarist provided he chooses from the male kind only. The fibres of kids are deemed to afford the surest prognostics. The altar is never stained with blood, and, though exposed to the open air, never moistened by rain. Supplications and the pure flame of fire are the only offerings. The statue of the goddess bears no resemblance to the human form: it is round throughout, broad at one end, and gradually tapering to a narrow span at the other, like a goal. The reason of this is unascertained.' P. 458 of 1839 ed. No tr. stated.]

[88] [Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 213, fig. 20.]

[89] [Lafitau, Moeurs des sauvages Ameriquains, vol. 1, p. 146. 'In Florida a mountain called Olaimi was worshipped, and among the Natchez of Louisiana a conical stone.' From Lubbock, ibid., p. 316.]

[90] [Arnobius, Adversus Gentes, bk. 5:5. 'In Timotheus, who was no mean mythologist, and also in others equally well informed, the birth of the Great Mother of the gods, and the origin of her rites, are thus detailed, being derived (as he himself writes and suggests) from learned books of antiquities, and from [his acquaintance with] the most secret mysteries: Within the confines of Phrygia, he says, there is a rock of unheard-of wildness in every respect, the name of which is Agdus, so named by the natives of that district. Stones taken from it, as Themis by her oracle had enjoined, Deucalion and Pyrrha threw upon the earth, at that time emptied of men; from which this Great Mother, too, as she is called, was fashioned along with the others, and animated by the Deity. Her, given over to rest and sleep on the very summit of the rock, Jupiter assailed with lewdest desires. But when, after long strife, he could not accomplish what he had proposed to himself, he, baffled, spent his lust on the stone. This the rock received, and with many groanings Acdestis is born in the tenth month, being named from his mother rock.' Trs., Hamilton Bryce and Hugh Campbell.
Livy, Roman History, 29:11. 'On their way to Asia the commissioners landed at Delphi, and at once went to consult the oracle and ascertain what hopes it held out to them and their country of accomplishing their task. The response which they are said to have received was that they would attain their object through King Attalus and when they had conveyed the goddess to Rome they were to take care that the best and noblest men in Rome should accord her a fitting reception. They went on to the royal residence in Pergamum, and here the king gave them a friendly welcome and conducted them to Pessinus in Phrygia. He then handed over to them the sacred stone which the natives declared to be "the Mother of the Gods," and bade them carry it to Rome.' Tr., Rev. Canon Roberts. See also Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 14.]

[91] [Sayce, 'The Bi-Lingual Hittite and Cuneiform Inscription of Tarkondêmos,' TSBA, 7:2, 295. 'Another result has been the re-perusal of Dr. Mordtmann's description of the silver boss, and the discovery of its real character and value.
    The boss, he tells us, was at the time he saw it in the possession of M. Alexander Jovanoff, the numismatist of Constantinople, who had obtained it at Smyrna. It was 16⅓ in diameter, 4⅓ "lines" in height, and very thin. The outer surface was divided into two fields, the inner and larger of which had the figure of a warrior standing erect in the middle, holding a spear in the left hand, and pressing the right against his breast. He was clothed in a tunic, over which a fringed cloak was thrown; a close-fitting cap was on his head, boots with turned-up ends on the feet, a dirk or dagger fastened in the belt, and the legs bare. On each side of the figure was a series of "symbols," the series on each side being the same, except that on the right side the upper "symbols" were smaller, and the lower "symbols" larger than the corresponding ones on the left side. "Above," Dr. Mordtmann continued, "on both sides of the head of the figure is a goat's head; beneath it comes a symbol difficult to determine—perhaps it is a pudendum muliebre."']

[92] [1 Tim. 3:15. 'But if I tarry long, that thou mayest know how thou oughtest to behave thyself in the house of God, which is the church of the living God, the pillar and ground of the truth.']

[92a] [Unable to trace.]

[93] [Source.]

[94] [Bundahish, ch. 29:5.]

[95] [Wilson, Vishnu Purana, vol. 2, p. 112. '"The four mountains, Mandara, Sugandha, Vipula, and Suparswa, serve as buttresses to support this [Meru]; and upon these four hills grow, severally, the Kadamba, Jambu, Vat'a, and Pippala trees, which are as banners on those four hills.
    From the clear juice which flows from the fruit of the Jambu springs the Jambunadi. From contact with this juice, earth becomes gold; and it is from this fact that gold is called jämhunada. [This juice is of so exquisite a flavour that] the multitude of the Suras and Siddhas, turning with distaste from nectar, delight to quaff this delicious beverage.
    And it is well known that upon those four hills [the buttresses of Meru,] are four gardens: Chaitraratha, of varied brilliancy [sacred to Kubera], Nandana, which is the delight of the Apsarasas, Dhriti, which gives refreshment to the gods, and the resplendent Vaibhraja.']

[96] [Bundahish, ch. 18:1-4; 27:4.]

[97] [Ibid., 24:27.]

[98] [A Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, ch. 31, p. 142. 'Another tradition stated that the heavens were originally so close to the earth that men could not walk, but were compelled to crawl. This was a serious evil; but, at length, an individual conceived the sublime idea of elevating the heavens to a more convenient height. For this purpose, he put forth his utmost energy; and, by the first effort, raised them to the top of a tender plant, called teve, about four feet high. There he deposited them until he was refreshed; when, by a second effort, he lifted them to the height of a tree called kauariki, which is as large as the sycamore. By the third attempt he carried them to the summits of the mountains; and, after a long interval of repose, and by a most prodigious effort, he elevated them to their present situation. This vast undertaking, however, was greatly facilitated by myriads of dragon flies, which, with their wings, severed the cords that confined the heavens to the earth. Now this individual was deified; and up to the moment that Christianity was embraced, the deluded inhabitants worshipped him as "the Elevator of the heavens."' From Hislop, The Two Babylons, p. 53.]

[99] [Basutos, p. 241.
Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 32. 'The old men say, "Unkulunkulu came into being, and gave being to man. He came out of a bed of reeds; he broke off from a bed of reeds." We children ask, "Where is the bed of reeds out of which Unkulunkulu came? Since you say there is a bed of reeds, in what country is it? For men have now gone into every country; in which of them is the bed of reeds from which Unkulunkulu broke off?" They say in answer, "Neither do we know; and there were other old men before us who said that neither did they know the bed of reeds which broke off Unkulunkulu."']

[100] [Latham, Descriptive Ethnology, vol. 1, p. 119. 'The moon, once a month, falls in love with his wife's mother: she, to repel his addresses, throws ashes in his face. In days of old the stars were so many individuals, who climbed to the top of a tree. Others from below cut this tree. The company in its upper branches are the stars. The group of the Pleiades is called the Hen-man (man and chickens).']

[101] [Schoolcraft, Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, vol. 1, pp. 14-7. '1. Aboriginal history, on this continent, is more celebrated for preserving its fables than its facts. This is emphatically true respecting the hunter and non-industrial tribes of the present area of the United States, who have left but little that is entitled to historical respect. Nations creeping out of the ground a world growing out of a tortoise s back the globe reconstructed from the earth clutched in a muskrat s paw, after a deluge, such are the fables, or allegories, from which we are to frame their ancient history. Without any mode of denoting their chronology, without letters, without any arts depending upon the use of iron tools, without, in truth, any power of mind or hand, to denote their early wars and dynasties, except what may be inferred from their monumental remains, there is nothing, in their oral narrations of ancient epochs, to bind together or give consistency to even this incongruous mass of wild hyperboles and crudities.
    Whenever it is attempted, by the slender thread of their oral traditions, to pick up and re-unite the broken chain of history, by which they were anciently connected with the old world, their sachems endeavor to fix attention by some striking allegory or incongruous fiction; which sounds, to ears of sober truth, like attempts at weaving a rope of sand. To impress the mind by extraordinary simplicity, or to surprise it, with a single graphic idea, is quite characteristic of Indian eloquence whatever be the theme.
    Manco Capac, deriving his pedigree from the sun, or Tarenyawagon, receiving his apotheosis from the White Bird of Heaven; Quetzalcoatl, founding the Toltec empire with a few wanderers from the Seven Caves; or Atatarho, veiling his god-like powers of terror with hissing rattle-snakes, fearful only to others; such are the proofs by which they aim to stay the ill-proportioned fabric of their history, antiquities, and mythology.
2. The native cosmogonists, when they are recalled from building these castles in the air, and asked the meaning of a tumulus, or the age of some gigantic tooth or bone, which remains to attest geological changes in the surface of the continent, answer with a stare and if they speak at all, they make such heavy drafts upon the imagination, that history never knows when she has made allowances enough on this head.
    A mammoth bull, jumping over the great lakes; a grape-vine carrying a whole tribe across the Mississippi; an eagle's wings producing the phenomenon of thunder, or its flashing eyes that of lightning; men stepping in viewless tracks up the blue arch of heaven; the rainbow made a baldric; a little boy catching the sun s beams in a snare; hawks, rescuing shipwrecked mariners from an angry ocean, and carrying them up a steep ascent, in leathern bags. These, or a plain event of last year s occurrence, are related by the chiefs with equal gravity, and expected to claim an equal share of belief and historic attention. Where so much is pure mythologic dross, or requires to be put in the crucible of allegory, there appears to be little room for any fact. Yet there are some facts, against which we cannot shut our eyes.
3. We perceive, in them, if examined by the light of truth, as revealed alike by divine and profane records, a marked variety of the human race, possessing traits of a decidedly oriental character, who have been lost to all history, ancient and modern. Of their precise origin, and the era and manner of their migration to this continent, we know nothing with certainty, which is not inferential. Philosophical inquiry is our only guide. This is still the judgment of the best inquirers, who have investigated the subject through the medium of physiology, languages, antiquities, arts, traditions, or whatever other means may have been employed to solve the question. They are, evidently, ancient in their occupancy of the continent. There are, probably, ruins here, which date within five hundred years of the foundation of Babylon. All history demonstrates, that from that central focus of nationality, nations were propelled over the globe with an extraordinary degree of energy and geographical enterprise. It is well said by a recent and eminent writer, that the foot of man has pressed many a soil, which late travellers assume was never trodden before. We have known this continent but three centuries and a half, dating from 1492. That discovery fell like a thunder-clap. But it is now known that the Scandinavians had set foot upon it, at a long prior date, and had visited the northern part of it, from Greenland, as early as the beginning of the 10th century. Even in the 9th century, we are informed, Othere proceeded on a voyage to the North Pole. The brothers Zeni had made important prior discoveries, in the western and northern oceans. Biscayan fishermen were driven off the Irish coasts in 1450, and there is a chart of Andrea Bianca in the Ducal Library at Venice, of 1436, on which the names of Brazil and Antillia occur.
4. But whenever visited, whether in the 9th, 10th, or 15th century, or late in the 16th, when Virginia was first visited, the Indians vindicated all the leading traits and characteristics of the present day. Of all races on the face of the earth, who were pushed from their original seats, and cast back into utter barbarism, they have, apparently, changed the least; and have preserved their physical and mental type, with the fewest alterations. They continue to reproduce themselves, as a race, even where their manners are comparatively polished, and their intellects enlightened; as if they were bound by the iron fetters of an unchanging type. In this unvarying and indomitable individuality, and in their fixity of opinion and general idiosyncracy, they certainly remind the reader of oriental races of the Shemitic family of man.
5. Viewed in extenso, the race appears to be composed of the fragments of various tribes of men, who bore, however, a general affinity to each other. With some small exceptions, they appear to be parts of a whole. Most of their languages and dialects are manifestly derivative. While they are transpositive and polysyllabic, they are of a type of synthesis more concrete and ancient in its structure than those of Rome and Greece, and exhibit no analogies to those of western and northern Europe, unless it be the Basque and Magyar. But they are philosophically homogeneous in syntax, capable of the most exact analysis and resolution into their original and simple elements; and while some of them impose concords, in reference to a wild aboriginal principle of animate and inanimate classes of nature, they are entirely una-synthetic. This subject will be examined in its proper place.
6. As a race, there never was one more impracticable; more bent on a nameless principle of tribality; more averse to combinations for their general good; more deaf to the voice of instruction; more determined to pursue all the elements of their own destruction. They are still, as a body, nomadic in their manners and customs. They appear, on this continent, to have trampled on monumental ruins, some of which had their origin before their arrival, or without their participation as builders; though these are apparently ruins of the same generic race of men, but of a prior era. They have, in the north, no temples for worship, and live in a wild belief of the ancient theory of a diurgus, or Soul of the Universe, which inhabits and animates every thing. They recognise their Great Spirit in rocks, trees, cataracts, and clouds; in thunder and lightning; in the strongest tempests and the softest zephyrs; and this subtle and transcendental Spirit is believed to conceal himself in titular deities from human gaze, as birds and quadrupeds; and, in short, he is to be supposed to exist under every possible form in the world, animate and inanimate.
7. While a Great Spirit thus constitutes the pith of Indian theory, the tribes live in a practical state of polytheism; and they have constructed a mythology in accordance with these sublimated views of matter and spirit, which is remarkable for the variety of its objects. To this they constantly appeal, at every step of their lives. They hear the great diurgic Spirit in every wind; they see him in every cloud; they fear him in every sound; and they adore him in every place that inspires awe. They thus make gods of the elements: they see his image in the sun; they acknowledge his mysterious power in fire; and wherever nature, in the perpetual struggle of matter to restore its equilibrium, assumes power, there they are sure to locate a god.
8. This is but half their capacity of stout belief. The Indian god of North America exists in a dualistic form; there is a malign and a benign type of him; and there is continual strife, in every possible form, between these two antagonistical powers, for the mastery over the mind. They are in perpetual activity. Legions of subordinate spirits attend both. Nature is replete with them. When the eye fails to recognise them in material forms, they are revealed in dreams. Necromancy and witchcraft are two of their ordinary powers. They can, in a twinkling, transform men and animals. False hopes and fears, which the Indian believes to be true, spring up on every side. His notions of the spirit-world exceed all belief; and the Indian mind is thus made the victim of wild mystery, unending suspicion, and paralyzing fear. Nothing could make him more truly a wild man.
9. It is a religion of woods and wilds, and involves the ever-varying and confused belief in spirits and demons, gods of the water and gods of the rocks, and in every imaginable creation of the air, the ocean, the earth, and the sky, of every possible power, indeed, which can produce secret harm or generate escape from it. Not to suffer, with the Indian, is to enjoy. Not to be in misery from these unnumbered hosts, is to be blest. He seems, indeed, to present the living problem of a race which has escaped from every good and truthful influence, and is determined to call into requisition every evil one, to prevent his return to the original doctrines of truth; for he constantly speaks, when his traditions are probed, of having lived in a better state; of having spoken a better and purer language, and of having been under the government of chiefs who exercised a more energetic power. Such, at least, I have found the tone of the Algonquin mind, during a long residence among them.
1. Where such a race can be supposed to have had their origin, history may vainly inquire. It probably broke off from one of the primary stocks of the human race, before history had dipped her pen in ink, or lifted her graver on stone. Herodotus is silent; there is nothing to be learned from Sanconiathus and the fragmentary ancients. The cuneiform and the Nilotic inscriptions, the oldest in the world, are mute. Our Indian stocks seem to be still more ancient. Their languages, their peculiar idiosyncrasy, all that is peculiar about them, denote this.
2. Considered in every point of view, the Indian race appears to be of an old a very old stock. Nothing that we have, in the shape of books, is ancient enough to recall the period of his origin, but the sacred oracles. If we appeal to these, a probable prototype may be recognised in that branch of the race which may be called Almogic, a branch of the Eberites; to whom, indeed, the revelation was not made, but who, as co-inhabitants for many ages of the same country, may be supposed to have been more or less acquainted with the fact of such revelation. Like them, they are depicted, at all periods of their history, as strongly self-willed, exclusive in their type of individuality, heedless, heady, impracticable, impatient of reproof or instruction, and strongly bent on the various forms of ancient idolatry. Such are, indeed, the traits of the American tribes.
3. What may be regarded, in their traditions of the world, their origin, and their opinions of man, as entitled to attention, is this. They believe in a supreme, transcendental power of goodness, or Great Merciful Spirit, by whom the earth, the animals, and man were created; also, in a great antagonistical power, who can disturb the benevolent purposes of the other power. This person they call the Great Evil Spirit. The belief in this duality of gods is universal.
4. They relate, generally, that there was a deluge at an ancient epoch, which covered the earth, and drowned mankind, except a limited number. They speak most emphatically of a future state, and appear to have some confused idea of rewards and punishments, which are allegorically represented.
5. They regard the earth as their cosmogonic mother, and declare their origin to have been in caves, or in some other manner within its depths. The leading dogma of their theology is, however, that a future state is destined to reward them for evils endured in this; and that the fates of men are irrevocably fixed, and cannot be altered, except, it may be, by appeals to their seers, prophets, or jossakeeds, which finally, if we are to judge by the stolidity of an Indian s death, they entirely forget, or appear to have no faith in.
    They declare themselves generally to be aborigines. Pure fables, or allegories, are all that support this. By one authority, they climbed up the roots of a large vine, from the interior to the surface of the earth; by another, they casually saw light, while underground, from the top of a cavern in the earth. In one way or another, most of the tribes plant themselves on the traditions of a local origin. Seeing many quadrupeds which burrow in the earth, they acknowledge a similar and mysterious relation. Tecumseh affirmed, in accordance with this notion, that the earth was his mother; and Michabou held that the birds and beasts were his brothers. A few of the tribes, north and south, have something of a traditional value to add to these notions, expressive of an opinion of a foreign origin. This, as gleaned from various authors, will be now particularly mentioned.']

[102] [Rev. 22:2. 'In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every month: and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations.']

[103] [Loskiel, History of the Mission of the United Brethren Among the Indians in North America, pt. 1, p. 42.
J. G. Muller, p. 92. 'At their festival in honour of the Fire-god with his twelve attendant manitus, inside the house of sacrifice a small oven-hut was set up, consisting of twelve poles tied together at the top and covered with blankets, high enough for a man to stand nearly upright within it. After the feast this oven was heated with twelve red-hot stones, and twelve men crept inside. An old man threw twelve pipefulls of tobacco on  these stones, and when the patients had borne to the utmost the heat and suffocating smoke, they were taken out, generally falling in a swoon.' From Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 486.]

[104] [Talbot, 'Inscription of Nabonidus,' RP, 5, 143. See p. 145.]

[105] [Bundahish, 5:3.]

[106] [Rochefort, Histoire naturelle et morale des Isles Antilles de l'Amerique, bk. 2, ch. 8. 'Another nation of sun-worshippers were the Apalaches of Florida, whose daily service was to salute the Sun at their doors as he rose and set. The Sun, they said, had built his own conical mountain of Olaimi, with its spiral path leading to the cave-temple, in the east side. Here, at the four solar festivals, the worshippers saluted the rising sun with chants and incense as his rays entered the sanctuary, and again when at midday the sunlight poured down upon the altar through the hole or shaft pierced for this purpose in the rocky vault of the cave; through this passage the sun-birds, the tonatzuli, were let fly up sunward as messengers, and the ceremony was over.' From Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 289.]

[107] [Smith, The Chaldean Account of Genesis. p. 92. '1. his mouth opened
    2. his ... a word he spoke
    3. satisfy my anger
    4. of thee let me send to thee
    5. thou ascendest
    6. thee to thy presence
    7. their curse
    8. in a circle may they sit
    9. let them make the vine?
    10. of them may they hear the renown.']

[108] [Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India, p. 61. 'When the Khonds settle a new village, the sacred cotton-tree must be planted with solemn rites, and beneath it is placed the stone which enshrines the village deity.' From Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 225.]

[109] [The Koran, ch. 53. 'The heart of Mohammed did not falsely represent that which he saw. Will ye therefore dispute with him concerning that which he saw? He also saw him another time, by the lote-tree beyond which there is no passing.' Sale's tr.
Note r: 'This tree, say the commentators, stands in the seventh heaven, on the right hand of the throne of GOD; and is the utmost bounds beyond which the angels themselves must not pass; or, as some rather imagine, beyond which no creature's knowledge can extend.']

[110] [Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 245. 'The maypole of Lostock, a village near Bolton, in Lancashire, is probably the most ancient on record. It is mentioned in a charter by which the town of West Halton was granted to the Abbey of Cockersand, about the reign of King John. The pole, it appears, superseded a cross, and formed one of the landmarks which defined the boundaries, and must therefore have been a permanent and not an annual erection.?']

[111] [Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, (1830 ed.), vol. 6, p. 2; N. 2, p. 906. 'The pole, it appears, superseded a cross, and formed one of the landmarks which defined the boundaries, and must therefore have been a permanent and not an annual erection. The words of the charter are, "De Lostockmepull, ubi crux sita fuit recta linea in austro, usque ad crucem-super-le-Tunge."' From Dyer, ibid., p. 245.]

[112] [Codex Diplomaticus, vol. 6, p. 8. 'Ærest of Lillan læwes crundle middewærdan to Lodderebeorge; xonon tó grénan lince westewardan; of xan lince tó earnes dune westewserde; xonon to holan dic eastwderde; andlang xære dic twá furlang norŏwærd; xonne eást be heáfdan twa furlang andlang fura on xone lytlan wyl; andlang wylles on Lacing bróc; andlang bróces eft on Gæing bróc; andlang bróces on xa æwylma; xonne audlang hearpaxes on Frigedseges treów; of xan treówe andlang weterdene west tó xære deópan dene; of xære dene tó xan reádan stáne; of xæn stáne eft on Lillan læwes crundele.']

[113] ['"At Hesket (in Cumberland) yearly on St. Barnabas's Day, by the highway side, under a thorn-tree (according to the very ancient manner of holding assemblies in the open air), is kept the court for the whole Forest of Englewood." Nicolson and Burn's Hist. of Westmor. and Cumb. ii. 344.' From Brand, Observation on Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, p. 245.]

[114] [Survey of London, vol. 1, p. 401. 'In the high street, near unto the Strand, sometime stood a cross of stone against the Bishop of Coventry or Chester his house; whereof I read that in the year 1294, and divers other times, the justices itinerants sate without London, at the stone cross over against the Bishop of Coventry's house, and sometime they sate in the Bishop's house, which was hard by the Strand, as is aforesaid.'
'In front of the spot now occupied by St. Mary-le-Strand anciently stood a cross, at which, says Stow, "In the year 1294 and other times, the justices itinerant sat without London."' From Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 230.]

[115] [Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions from the British Museum and other Sources, pl. 105.]

[116] [Rit. ch. 97. 'The well has come through me. I wash in the Pool of Peace. I draw waters from the divine Pool under the two Sycamores of heaven and earth.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf's.]

[117] [Rig Veda, 10:72, 2 f.
Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, vol. 5, p. 214. 'Although (as we have seen above) he is described in some passages as the offspring of heaven and earth, he is said in other places to have stretched them out, iii. 6, 5 (tava kratvd rodasl a tatantha); vii. 5, 4; to have spread out the two worlds like two skins, vi. 8, 3 (vi charmamva dhishane avartayai); to have produced them, i. 96 4 (janitd rodasysh); vii. 5, 6 (bhuvand janayan); to have, like the unborn, supported the earth and sky with true hymns, i. 67, 3 (ajo na kshdm dadhdra prithivlm tastambha dydm mantrebhih satyaih); to have, by his flame, held aloft the heaven, iii. 5, 10 (ud astambhlt samidhd ndkam rishvah); to have kept asunder the two worlds, vi. 8, 3 (vi astabhndd rodasl mitro adbhutah); to have formed the mundane regions and the luminaries of heaven.'
Ibid., vol. 5, p. 379. '"He formed the first abode, he who with a prop (skambha) held apart the two worlds, like the unborn."']

[118] [Eitel, Feng Shui, (1873 ed.), p. 5. 'According to Choo-he there was in the beginning one abstract principle or monad, called the "absolute nothing," which evolved out of itself the "great absolute." This abstract principle or monad, the great absolute, is the primordial cause of all existence. When it first moved, its breath or vital energy congealing, produced the great male principle. When it had moved to the uttermost it rested, and in resting produced the female principle.']

[119] [Azariel, Commentary, 2a.]

[120] [Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 1114. 'Skabh (probably a mere phonetic variety of rt. stambh, q. v.; in native lists written skanbh).']

[121] [Naville, 'The Litany of Ra,' RP, 8, 103. See p. 123, 4:8.]

[122] [Texts quoted by Muir on 'Skambha,' Original Sanskrit Texts, vol. 5, pp. 378-90. See note 117 above.]

[123] [Vendidad, fargard, 8:26. 'Naked and without clothes (lying) on bricks, stone, or mortar, away to the Kata.'
Bleeck notes: 'In this verse the Huz. Tr. renders çkembas "a pillar," by "kata."']

[124] [Gill, Life in the Southern Isles, p. 171.]

[125] [Bahman Yasht, ch. 1:1, 3, etc.]

[126] [Eitel, Feng-Shui, p. 50. 'Only in places where the breath of nature is well kept together, being shut in to the right and left and having a drainage carrying off the water in a winding tortuous course, there are the best indications of a permanent supply of vital breath being found there. Building a tomb or a house in such a place will ensure prosperity, wealth and honour.
    As a general rule it is observed, that whenever one meets with doubtful ground which shows no clear indications of the dragon's veins, it is best to look for the most secluded retired corner, for in retirement it is that tiger and dragon are most closely intertwined, and there the breath is gathered most abundantly. And suppose ground has been found where both dragon and tiger are completely delineated, the rule is then to look near the junction of dragon and tiger for some little hollow or little mound, or in short some sudden transition from male to female or from female to male ground. For the body of the dragon and the surrounding hills should always exhibit both male and female characteristics up to the very point where the luck-bringing site is to be chosen.' Or pp. 40-1, rev'd ed.]

[127] ['The learned Dr. Leichtenstein, who travelled in 1803 with the Dutch Commissioner de Mist through the Colony, gives a few but very valuable remarks. Leichtenstein and party were travelling in the Eastern Province Outeniqualand, and the field cornet Rademeier was with them to show the road. "The well-informed Rademeier who had offered himself to show us the road for some distance, drew, not far from the road, our attention to a grave of a Hottentot, who, according to the general tradition of this people, long before the Christians had immigrated into these parts of the world, had considered to be a great doctor and a wise man, and whose memory was honoured by the custom, that each Hottentot who passed by threw a fresh branch of flowers on the grave. We actually saw some half-dried flowers which might have been thrown there only a few days ago. The grave consisted of a heap of stones about twenty or thirty yards in circumference. It is interesting that this circumstance, which had not been observed by form travellers, serves as proof of the higher culture to which the Gonaquas had developed before the other Hottentots, because it was in their country to which this territory belonged."—German original edition, p. 349.' From Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 240.]

[128] [Mitchell, Past in the Present, p. 83, fig. 49.]

[129] [Gemme Antiche Figurate, pt. 3, p. 64.]

[130] [Ez. 1:5-6. 'Also out of the midst thereof came the likeness of four living creatures. And this was their appearance; they had the likeness of a man.
    And every one had four faces, and every one had four wings.']

[131] [Rev. 4:7. 'And the first beast was like a lion, and the second beast like a calf, and the third beast had a face as a man, and the fourth beast was like a flying eagle.']

[132] [Austin, 'On a Fragmentary Inscription of Psametik I, in the Museum of Palermo,' TSBA, 6. See full text.]

[133] [Brugsch, 'Great Mendes Stele,' RP, 8, 91. See p. 95, 1.2.]

[134] [Rit. ch. 135. 'The Osiris has bandaged or opened the wound (in) the body of the heaven. It is bandaged, the good Horus cures it daily, the greatest of created types, offering at the time, dissipating the injury from the face of the Osiris, making it go. He is the Sun as he is conducted along. He is the Four superior Gods of the Upper place. The Osiris has approached in his day, coming by his rope to the Beings.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf's.]

[135] [Commentary on the Timaeus, bk. 1. 'The Goddess, therefore, being demiurgic, and at the same time apparent and unapparent, has an allotment in the heavens, and illuminates generation with forms. For of the sign of the Zodiac, the ram is ascribed to the ascribed to the Goddess, and the equinoctial circle itself, where especially a power motive, of the universe is established.' Taylor's tr., vol. 1, p. 82.]

[136] [Schoolcraft, Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, vol. 1, pp. 317-9. 'At a certain time, a great Manito came on earth, and took a wife of men. She had four sons at a birth, and died in ushering them into the world. The first was Manabozho, who is the friend of the human race. The second Chibiabos, who has the care of the dead, and presides over the country of souls. The third Wabasso, who, as soon as he saw light, fled to the North, where he was changed into a white rabbit, and, under that form, is considered as a great spirit. The fourth was Chokanipok, or the man of flint, or the fire-stone.
    The first thing Manabozho did, when he grew up, was to go to war against Chokanipok, whom he accused of his mother's death. The contests between them were frightful and long continued, and wherever they had a combat the face of nature still shows signs of it. Fragments were cut from his flesh, which were transformed into stones, and he finally destroyed Chokanipok by tearing out his entrails, which were changed into vines. All the flint-stones which are scattered over the earth were produced in this way, and they supplied men with the principle of fire.
    Manabozho was the author of arts and improvements. He taught men how to make agakwuts, lances, and arrow-points, and all implements of bone and stone, and also how to make snares, and traps, and nets, to take animals, and birds, and fishes. He and his brother Chibiabas lived retired, and were very intimate, planning things for the good of men, and were of superior and surpassing powers of mind and body.
    The Manitos who live in the air, the earth, and the water, became jealous of their great power, and conspired against them. Manabozho had warned his brother against their machinations, and cautioned him not to separate himself from his side; but one day Chibiabos ventured alone on one of the Great Lakes. It was winter, and the whole surface was covered with ice. As soon as he had reached the centre the malicious Manitos broke the ice, and plunged him to the bottom, where they hid his body.
    Manabozho wailed along the shores. He waged a war against all the Manitos, and precipitated numbers of them to the deepest abyss. He called on the dead body of his brother. He put the whole country in. dread by his lamentations. He then besmeared his face with black, and sat down six years to lament, uttering the name of Chibiabos. The Manitos consulted what to do to appease his melancholy and his wrath. The oldest and wisest of them, who had had no hand in the death of Chibiabos, offered to undertake the task of reconciliation. They built a sacred lodge close to that of Manabozho, and prepared a sumptuous feast. They procured the most delicious tobacco, and filled a pipe. They then assembled in order, one behind the other, and each carrying under his arm a sack formed of the skin of some favorite animal, as a beaver, an otter, or a lynx, and filled with precious and curious medicines, culled from all plants. These they exhibited, and invited him to the feast with pleasing words and ceremonies. He immediately raised his head, uncovered it, and washed off his mourning colors and besmearments, and then followed them. When they had reached the lodge, they offered him a cup of liquor prepared from the choicest medicines, as, at once, a propitiation, and an initiative rite. He drank it at a single draught. He found his melancholy departed, and felt the most inspiring effects. They then commenced their dances and songs, united with various ceremonies. Some shook their bags at him as a token of skill. Some exhibited the skins of birds filled with smaller birds, which, by some art, would hop out of the throat of the bag. Others showed curious tricks with their drums. All danced, all sang, all acted with the utmost gravity, and earnestness of gestures; but with exactness of time, motion, and voice. Manabozho was cured; he ate, danced, sung, and smoked the sacred pipe. In this manner the mysteries of the Grand Medicine Dance were introduced.
    The before recreant Manitoes now all united their powers, to bring Chibiabos to life. They did so, and brought him to life, but it was forbidden him to enter the lodge. They gave him, through a chink, a burning coal, and told him to go and preside over the country of souls, and reign over the land of the dead. They bid him with the coal to kindle a fire for his aunts and uncles, a term by which is meant all men who should die thereafter, and make them happy, and let it be an everlasting fire.
    Manabozho went to the Great Spirit after these things. He then descended to the earth, and confirmed the mysteries of the medicine-dance, and supplied all whom he initiated with medicines for the cure of all diseases. It is to him that we owe the growth of all the medical roots, and antidotes to every disease and poison. He commits the growth of these to Misukumigakwa, or the mother of the earth, to whom he makes offerings.
    Manabozho traverses the whole earth. He is the friend of man. He killed the ancient monsters whose bones we now see under the earth; and cleared the streams and forests of many obstructions which the Bad Spirit had put there, to fit them for our residence. He has placed four good Spirits at the four cardinal points, to which we point in our ceremonies. The Spirit at the North gives snow and ice, to enable men to pursue game and fish. The Spirit of the South gives melons, maize, and tobacco. The Spirit of the West gives rain, and the Spirit of the East, light ; and he commands the sun to make his daily walks around the earth. Thunder is the voice of these Spirits, to whom we offer the smoke of samau (tobacco).
    Manabozho, it is believed, yet lives on an immense flake of ice in the Arctic Ocean. We fear the white race will some day discover his retreat, and drive him off. Then the end of the world is at hand, for as soon as he puts his foot on the earth again, it will take fire, and every living creature perish in the flames.']

[137] [Nuttall, A Journal of Travels into the Arkansa Territory, p. 175. 'Every morning, as the sun appeared, the great chief came to the door of his cabin, and turning himself towards the East, bowed to the earth, and howled three successive times. A pipe dedicated to this purpose was then brought to him, out of which he smoked tobacco, blowing the fume towards the sun, and the other three quarters of the world.' From the rev'd ed. of 1905, p. 340, with additional notes.
Ibid., p. 340. 'This, which Sir William Jones considered as the ritual of the Tartars, is also employed by the Sioux or Naudowessies, as I have repeatedly witnessed.
    According to the observations of Mr. Wm. Bartram, the Creeks likewise practised the same ceremony.
    An invocation not very dissimilar to this sacred ceremony, is that of Agamemnon in the Iliad; thus translated by Pope:
    "Then loudly thus before th' attentive bands
    He calls the gods, and spreads his lifted hands:
    O first and greatest power! whom all obey,
    Who high on Ida's holy mountain sway,
    Eternal Jove! and yon bright orb that rolls
    From east to west, and views from pole to pole!
    Thou mother Earth! and all ye living Floods;
    Infernal Furies! and Tartarian Gods;
    Hear and be witness."
Pope's Iliad, Book III. lines 344-354.
    According to Humboldt, in his Monumens de I'Amerique, vol. ii. pp. 54 and 55, the Mexican cycle of 52 years was divided into four indictions of 13 years, in reference to the jour seasons of the year, the four elements, and the cardinal points. The most ancient division of the zodiac, according to Albategnius, is that into four parts. "These four signs," he adds, "of the equinoxes and the solstices, chosen from a series of 20 signs" (the number of days in the Mexican month), "recall to mind the four royal stars, Aldebaran, Regulus, Antares, and Fomahault, celebrated in all Asia, and presiding over the seasons. In the new continent, the indictions of the cycle of 52 years, formed, as we would say, the four seasons of the grand year, and the Mexican astrologers were pleased to see presiding over each period of 13 years one of the four equinoctial or solstitial signs."']

[138] [Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 67. 'Such a reason must take its rise from some essential relation of man to nature, everywhere prominent, everywhere the same. It is found in the adoration of the cardinal points.
    The red man, as I have said, was a hunter; he was ever wandering through pathless forests, coursing over boundless prairies. It seems to the white race not a faculty, but an instinct that guides him so unerringly. He is never at a loss. Says a writer who has deeply studied his character: "The Indian ever has the points of the compass present to his mind, and expresses himself accordingly in words, although it shall be of matters in his own house." The assumption of precisely four cardinal points is not of chance; it is recognized in every language; it is rendered essential by the anatomical structure of the body; it is derived from the immutable laws of the universe.']

[139] [History of the Conquest of Peru, bk. 1, ch. 2, pp. 20-1. 'The name of Peru was not known to the natives. It was given by the Spaniards, and originated, it is said, in a misapprehension of the Indian name of "river." However this may be, it is certain that the natives had no other epithet by which to designate the large collection of tribes' and nations who were assembled under the sceptre of the Incas, than that of Tavantinsuyu, or "four quarters of the world." Vol. 1, pp. 41-2, 1848, New York ed.]

[140] [Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 75. 'Or again, that of the Dakotas, and the word tate-ouye-toba, translated "the four quarters of the heavens," means literally, "whence the four winds come."' Quoting Riggs, Grammar and Dictionary of the Dakota Language.]

[141] [Schoolcraft, Algic Researches, vol. 1, p. 139. '"Yes," she said, "you have a father and three brothers living. Your mother is dead. She was taken without the consent of her parents by your father the West. Your brothers are the North, East, and South, and, being older than yourself, your father has given them great power with the winds, according to their names. You are the youngest of his children. I have nourished you from your infancy, for your mother died in giving you birth, owing to the ill treatment of your father. I have no relations besides you this side of the planet in which I was born, and from which I was precipitated by female jealousy. Your mother was my only child, and you are my only hope."']

[142] [Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 167. 'The names of the four brothers, Wabun, Kabun, Kabibonokka, and Shawano, express in Algonkin both the cardinal points and the winds which blow from them.']

[143] [Ibid., pp. 95-8. 'The symbol that beyond all others has fascinated the human mind, THE CROSS, finds here its source and meaning. Scholars have pointed out its sacredness in many natural religions, and have, reverently accepted it as a mystery, or offered scores of conflicting and often debasing interpretations. It is but another symbol of the four cardinal points, the four winds of heaven. This will luminously appear by a study of its use and meaning in America.
    The Catholic missionaries found it was no new object of adoration to the red race, and were in doubt whether to ascribe the fact to the pious labors of Saint Thomas or the sacrilegious subtlety of Satan.
    It was the central object in the great temple of Cozumel, and is still preserved on the bas-reliefs of the ruined city of Palenque. From time immemorial it had received the prayers and sacrifices of the Aztecs and Toltecs, and was suspended as an august emblem from the walls of temples in Popoyan and Cundinairiarca. In the Mexican tongue it bore the significant and worthy name "Tree of Our Life," or "Tree of our Flesh" (Tonacaquahuitl). It represented the god of rains and of health, and this was everywhere its simple meaning. "Those of Yucatan," say the chroniclers, "prayed to the cross as the god of rains when they needed water." The Aztec goddess of rains bore one in her hand, and at the feast celebrated to her honor in the early spring victims were nailed to a cross and shot with arrows. Quetzalcoatl, god of the winds, bore as his sign of office "a mace like the cross of a bishop;" his robe was covered with them strewn like flowers, and its adoration was throughout connected with his worship. When the Muyscas would sacrifice to the goddess of waters they extended cords across the tranquil depths of some lake, thus forming a gigantic cross, and at their point of intersection threw in their offerings of gold, emeralds, and precious oils. The arms of the cross were designed to point to the cardinal points and represent the four winds, the rain bringers. To confirm this explanation, let us have recourse to the simpler ceremonies of the less cultivated tribes, and see the transparent meaning of the symbol as they employed it.
    When the rain maker of the Lenni Lenape would exert his power, he retired to some secluded spot and drew upon the earth the figure of a cross (its arms toward the cardinal points?), placed upon it a piece of tobacco, a gourd, a bit of some red stuff, and commenced to cry aloud to the spirits of the rains. The Creeks at the festival of the Busk, celebrated, as we have seen, to the four winds, and according to their legends instituted by them, commenced with making the new fire. The manner of this was "to place four logs in the centre of the square, end to end, forming a cross, the outer ends pointing to the cardinal points; in the centre of the cross the new fire is made."
    As the emblem of the winds who dispense the fertilizing showers it is emphatically the tree of our life, our subsistence, and our health. It never had any other meaning in America, and if, as has been said, the tombs of the Mexicans were cruciform, it was perhaps with reference to a resurrection and a future life as portrayed under this symbol, indicating that the buried body would rise by the action of the four spirits of the world, as the buried seed takes on a new existence when watered by the vernal showers. It frequently recurs in the ancient Egyptian writings, where it is interpreted life; doubtless, could we trace the hieroglyph to its source, it would likewise prove to be derived from the four winds.
    While thus recognizing the natural origin of this consecrated symbol, while it is based on the sacredness of numbers, and this in turn on the structure and necessary relations of the human body, thus disowning the meaningless mysticism that Joseph de Maistre and his disciples have advocated, let us on the other hand be equally on our guard against accepting the material facts which underlie these beliefs as their deepest foundation and their exhaustive explanation. That were but withered fruit for our labors, and it might well be asked, where is here the divine idea said to be dimly prefigured in mythology? The universal belief in the sacredness of numbers is an instinctive faith in an immortal truth; it is a direct perception of the soul, akin to that which recognizes a God. The laws of chemical combination, of the various modes of motion, of all organic growth, show that simple numerical relations govern all the properties and are inherent to the very constitution of matter; more marvellous still, the most recent and severe inductions of physicists show that precisely those two numbers on whose symbolical value much of the edifice of ancient mythology was erected, the four and the three, regulate the molecular distribution of matter and preside over the symmetrical development of organic forms. This asks no faith, but only knowledge; it is science, not revelation. In view of such facts is it presumptuous to predict that experiment itself will prove the truth of Kepler's beautiful saying: "The universe is a harmonious whole, the soul of which is God; numbers, figures, the stars, all nature, indeed, are in unison with the mysteries of religion."']

[144] [Ancient MS discovered by Stephens, presumably in Incidents of Travel in Central America, but unable to trace.]

[145] [Oppert, 'Bull Inscription of Khorsabad,' RP, 11, 15. See p. 21.
See BB 2:469.]

[146] [Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, vol. 3, p. 122. 'The sky, according to certain of the Yucatecs, was held up by four brothers called each of them Bacab, in addition to their several names, which seem to have been Kan, Muluc, Ix, and Cauac. These four, God had placed at the four corners of the world when he created it, and they had escaped when all else were destroyed by flood.']

[147] [Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 89. '"There is a Tulan," says an ancient authority, "where the sun rises, and there is another in the land of shades, and another where the sun reposes, and thence came we; and still another where the sun reposes, and there dwells God."'—Memorial de Tecpan Atitlan, in Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire du Mexique, vol. 1, p. 67.]

[148] [Grey, Polynesian Mythology, ch. 1.
See also Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 1, pp. 322-5.]

[149] [Legge, Shu-king, pt. 1, ch, 2. 'He commanded the Hsîs and Hos, in reverent accordance with (their observation of) the wide heavens, to calculate and delineate (the movements and appearances of) the sun, the moon, the stars, and the zodiacal spaces, and so to deliver respectfully the seasons to be observed by the people.
    He separately commanded the second brother Hsî to reside at Yü-î, in what was called the Bright Valley, and (there) respectfully to receive as a guest the rising sun, and to adjust and arrange the labours of the spring. 'The day,' (said he), 'is of the medium length, and the star is in Niâo;—you may thus exactly determine mid-spring. The people are dispersed (in the fields), and birds and beasts breed and copulate.'
    He further commanded the third brother. Hsî to reside at Nan-kiâo, (in what was called the Brilliant Capital) to adjust and arrange the transformations of the summer, and respectfully-to observe the exact limit (of the shadow). 'The day,' (said he), 'is at its longest, and the star is in Hwo;—you may thus exactly determine mid-summer. The people are more dispersed; and birds and beasts have their feathers and hair thin, and change their coats.'
    He separately commanded the second brother Ho to reside at the west, in what was called the Dark Valley, and (there) respectfully to convoy the setting sun, and to adjust and arrange the completing labours of the autumn. 'The night' (said he), 'is of the medium length, and the star is In Hsü;—you may thus exactly determine mid-autumn. The people feel at ease, and birds and beasts have, their coats in good condition.'
    He further commanded the third brother Ho to reside in the northern region, in what was called the Sombre Capital, and (there) to adjust and examine the changes of the winter. 'The day,' (said he), 'is at its shortest, and the star is in Mâo;—you may thus exactly determine mid-winter. The people, keep in their houses, and the coats of birds and beasts are downy and thick.'
    The Tî said, 'Ah! you, Hsîs and Hos, a round year consists of three hundred, sixty, and six days. Do you, by means of the intercalary month, fix the four seasons, and complete (the period of) the year. (Thereafter), the various officers being regulated, in accordance with this, all the works (of the year) will be fully performed.'
Legge notes, SBE, 3, 31: 'Yao is the subject of the book: In ch. 1, in his personal character and the general results of the government; in ch. 2, in his special care for the regulation of the calendar and the labours of agriculture.'
Chalmers, Astronomy of the Ancient Chinese.]

[150] [Burgess, Surya-Siddhanta. See the Appendix, p. 321 onwards, for comparative lists. Too long to quote here.]

[151] [Atharva-Veda, 1, 31.1.]

[152] [Book of Enoch, ch. 76:1- 4.]

[153] [Gen. 2:7. 'And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.']

[154] [The Targum of Palestine, on v. 2 of Genesis. 'And the Lord God created man in two formations; and took dust from the place of the house of the sanctuary, and from the four winds of the world, and mixed from all the waters of the world, and created him red, black, and white; and breathed into his nostrils the inspiration of life, and there was in the body of Adam the inspiration of a speaking spirit, unto the illumination of the eyes and the hearing of the ears.']

[155] [Rev. 7:4. 'And I heard the number of them which were sealed: and there were sealed an hundred and forty and four thousand of all the tribes of the children of Israel.']

[156] [Poss. in Spencer, Data of Sociology, p. 178. 'Describing the Tasmanians, Milligan says "To these guardian spirits they give the generic name 'Warrawah,' an aboriginal term, ... signifying shade, shadow, ghost, or apparition."'
Another account by Milligan of the Tasmanians is quoted in Nixon's Cruise of the Beacon, (1857), pp. 25-31. "The aborigines of Tasmania, a race now nearly extinct, had a complexion and skin of a dark brown or nearly black colour, with crisp hair, growing remarkably low upon the forehead. And extending down, in both sexes, on each side of the temples, in the shape of a whisker, projecting eyebrows, and sunken orbits, flat nose, and lips slightly thickened. In stature many of them were above the middle size, while, on the other side, many fell short of it. They wore no clothing whatever, except only in case of illness, when a kangaroo skin was put on, with the fur inwards, laced together in a way to fit the body. All along the eastern and central portion of the Colony they lived without having any fixed abode; and it was only on the west coast, between Port Davey and Macquarie Harbour, that huts were in use continuously, for periods of about six months together: these buts were conical, and thatched with grass, having an opening on one side, to answer the double purpose of door and chimney. The numerous tribes of which the peculation of the island consisted were constantly at war with one another; and their language or medium of communication, was, as might have been expected, split, by hostility and non-intercourse, into dialects almost as many as the various tribes in number. They lived chiefly cm animal food; the kangaroo, wallaby, bandicoot, kangaroo rat, the opossum, and the wombat, nearly every bird and bird's-egg that could be procured, and, in the case of tribes near the sea, cray-fish and shell-fish, formed the staple articles of their diet. With these they mingled the core or pith of the fern trees, Cibotmm, Billardteri and Alsophila Australia (of which the former is rather astringent and dry for a European palate, and the latter, though more tolerable, is met scarcely equal to a Swedish turnip); the young shoots of the Pteria esmlenti, common ferns, as they emerge from the ground fall of yiscid mucous juice and various epiphytic fungi, of which one of the most important is that which grows on the Eucalypti, and is known, when dry, under the name of Punk, and used as a tinder in the Colony. Punk, when young, is nearly snow-white. soft, and, to the taste, insipid, with a distant flavour of mushroom; in this stage they eat it freely, either raw or slightly roasted. The Cyttaria of the myrtle tree, a small moxelle-looking, honey-combed fungus, growing upon a fine pedicle, was a great favourite; but that which afforded the largest amount of solid and substantial nutritious matter was the native bread, a fungus growing in the ground, after the manner of the truffle, and generally so near the roots of trees as to be reputed parasitical. Several mushrooms were also eaten by them; the onion-like leaves of some orchids, and the tubers of several plants of this tribe, were largely consumed by them, particularly those of Gastrodi sesamoides, the native potato, so called by the colonists, though never tasted by them, and having not the most remote relation to the plant of that name, except in a little resemblance of the tubers, in shape and appearance, to the kidney potato. The green seed-vessels of Acacia saphora, A. maritima, and several others were eaten freely by them, after having been half roasted by the fire; the amylaceous roots of the bulrush were roasted and eaten by them, together with the carrot-like roots of some small umbelliferae. Of berries and fruits of which they partook, the principal were those of Solanum ladniatum, or kangaroo apple, when dead ripe, of Leucopogon gnidium and ericoidea, of certain species of Ooprosma, of the Otuilliherta aspida, the Billardtera longiflora, of Cyathodea, &c. &c. Besides these the leaf of the larger kelp, whenever it could be obtained, was eagerly looked for and greedily eaten, after having undergone a process of roasting and maceration in fresh water, followed by a second roasting, when, though tough, and too much like sole leather, it is susceptible of mastication, and, no doubt, nutritious. The women shaved their hair completely off; the men wore it long, and gave it a mop-like form and appearance by smearing it with fat of the wombat and kangaroo, and then daubing it full of red ochre, by which it was made to hang in corkscrews all around, and over the face and neck down to the shoulders; the women went about usually quite bald, and devoid of covering; frequently, however, they wore a fillet of gay flowers, of festoons of showy berries, or strings of shells, upon their bare heads. They also wore a strip of the skin of wallaby or kangaroo under the knee, in place of a garter, or around the wrist or ankle. Other covering or ornament the aborigines had none, save and except the symmetrical lines of scars raised by incisions made, and long kept open, across the chest, and upon the arms and thighs—a practice to which the women appear often to have submitted, though more characteristic of the men their masters. It was rarely the custom amongst them to select wives from their own tribes, but rather to take them furtively, or by open force, from neighbouring clans; they were monogamous, but the practice of divorce was recognised, and acted upon, on incompatibility of disposition and habits, as well as on grosser cause given. Tasmanian lords had no difficulty, and made no scruple, about a succession of wives, and would thus occasionally, after temporary separation, readjust differences, and live happily ever after with their 'first loves:' still they never kept more than one wife at one time. They were polytheists; that is, they believed in guardian angels or spirits, and in a plurality of powerful but generally evil-disposed beings, inhabiting crevices and caverns of rocky mountains, and making temporary abode in hollow trees and solitary valleys: of these a few were supposed to be of great power, while to the majority were imputed much of the nature and attributes of the goblins and elves of our native land. The aborigines were extremely superstitious, believing most implicitly in the return of the spirits of their departed friends and relations to bless or injure them, as the case might be; and they often carried about with them one or other of the bones of the deceased as a charm against adversity. Bones of the leg, arm, foot, and hand, the lower jaw, and even the skull, have in this way, and for this purpose, been found suspended round the necks of individuals amongst them. With respect to the burial of the dead, some of the tribes were in the habit of burning the remains; in which cases the ashes were sometimes taken up very carefully, and carried about as an amulet, to ward off sickness, and to ensure success in hunting and in war. Other tribes placed their dead in hollow trees, surrounded with implements of the chase and of war, building them in with pieces of wood gathered in the neighbourhood; while others would look out for natural, graves, made by the upturn of large trees, and there deposit the bodies of their dead, leaving them but slightly covered with stones and loose earth. Long after Tasmania was first occupied, tribes have been met numbering more than one hundred. As European population crept in and increased, and their flocks and herds spread over the country, sanguinary feuds often arose between the original inhabitants and the stockmen and shepherds, usually terminating most fatally to the former. The inferior race has slowly but steadily yielded; and though long succoured and protected, there is now a mere handful of the aboriginal inhabitants left, maintained, however, in ease and comfort upon a Government establishment."' This is partially quoted by Tylor in his Primitive Culture, vol. 2, but in neither case is the author clearly identified. The ref. must lie in a journal.]

[157] [Mallet, Northern Antiquities, vol. 2, p, 23. 'Then having formed the heavens of his scull, they made them rest on all sides upon the earth: they divided them into four quarters, and placed a dwarf at each corner to sustain it. These dwarfs are called EAST, WEST, SOUTH, and NORTH.']

[157a] [Ez. 1:5-6. 'Also out of the midst thereof came the likeness of four living creatures. And this was their appearance; they had the likeness of a man.
    And every one had four faces, and every one had four wings.'
See note 130 above.]

[158] [Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians, vol. 1, p. 181. 'These four sacks of water have the appearance of very great antiquity; and by enquiring of my very ingenious friend and patron, the medicine-man, after the ceremonies were over, he very gravely told me, that those four tortoises contained the waters from the four quarters of the world—that these waters had been contained therein ever since the settling down of the waters!" I did not think it best to advance any argument against so ridiculous a theory, and therefore could not even enquire or learn, at what period they had been instituted, or how often, or on what occasions, the water in them had been changed or replenished.']

[159] [Boturini, Humboldt, King, Antiquities of Mexico, vol. 4.
Gemelli-Careri, Giro del Mondo, vol. 6, ch. 6, p. 40. Wrong p. no. Unable to trace.]

[160] [Davies, The Mythology and Rites of the British Druids, p. 12.
Oppert, 'Bull Inscription of Khorsabad,' RP, 11, 15. See p. 25.]

[161] [Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, under entry 'Meru.' 'Meru, us, m. (in Unadi-s. IV. 101, said to be fr. rt. I. mi), N. of a fabulous mountain regarded as the Olympus of Hindu mythology, it is said to form the central point of Jambu-dvlpa, all the planets revolving round it, and is compared to the cup or seed-vessel of a lotus, the leaves of which are formed by the different Dvipas; its height is said to be 84,000 Yojanas, 16,000 of which are below the surface of the earth; its shape is variously described, as square, conical, spherical, or spiral, and its four faces are variously coloured, being white towards the east, yellow to the south, black to the west, and red to the north; the river Ganges falls from heaven on its summit, and flows thence to the surrounding worlds in four streams; the regents of the four points of the compass occupy the corresponding faces of the mountain, the whole of which consists of gold and gems; its summit is the residence of Brahms, and a place of meeting for the gods, Rishis, Gandharvas, &c.']

[162] [Bahman Yasht, ch. 1:2.]

[163] [Dan. 2:26-33. 'The king answered and said to Daniel, whose name was Belteshazzar, Art thou able to make known unto me the dream which I have seen, and the interpretation thereof?
    Daniel answered in the presence of the king, and said, The secret which the king hath demanded cannot the wise men, the astrologers, the magicians, the soothsayers, show unto the king;
    But there is a God in heaven that revealeth secrets, and maketh known to the king Nebuchadnezzar what shall be in the latter days. Thy dream, and the visions of thy head upon thy bed, are these;
    As for thee, O king, thy thoughts came into thy mind upon thy bed, what should come to pass hereafter: and he that revealeth secrets maketh known to thee what shall come to pass.
    But as for me, this secret is not revealed to me for any wisdom that I have more than any living, but for their sakes that shall make known the interpretation to the king, and that thou mightest know the thoughts of thy heart.
    Thou, O king, sawest, and behold a great image. This great image, whose brightness was excellent, stood before thee; and the form thereof was terrible.
    This image's head was of fine gold, his breast and his arms of silver, his belly and his thighs of brass,
    His legs of iron, his feet part of iron and part of clay.'
Bahman Yasht, ch. 1:1-3.
Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language of the Parsis, p. 126. 'Sudkar, "conferring benefits," corresponding to the Avesta word yatha in the Yatha ahu vairya formula, and called Studgar, or Istudgar, in the Rivayats and Dini-vajarkard, consisted of 22 sections. It contained advice to mankind as to prayer and virtue, the performance of good actions and meditation, producing harmony among relations, and such-like matters. In the Rivayats and Dini-vajarkard this Nask is the second, as their lists begin with the twenty-first Nask, which removes all the others one step lower down; this error appears to have been occasioned by the Dinkard giving two lists, one dividing the Nasks into three classes, gasdnik, haddak-mansarik (or yashtak-mansarik), and dadik; the other recapitulating the names in their proper order, which is preserved in the after descriptions of their contents. The first or classified list begins with the twenty-first Nask on the general list, and this may have led the writers of the Rivayats to consider it the first Nask. That the second list in the Dinkard is correct, appears from its placing the Vendidad nineteenth on the list, which is confirmed by Eustam-i Mihirapan's colophon in the old Vendidad with Pahlavi at Copenhagen; whereas the Rivayats and Dini-vajarkard make it the twentieth.' This is cited by West in his notes to the Bahman Yasht, in SBE 5:191-2; 37:180-1.]

[164] [Remusat, The Pilgrimage of Fa Hian, p. 91. 'According to the Fa houa wen kiu, towers or stupas were never erected over the tombs of either monks or laymen; but simple stones, which by their form symbolise the five elements; ether, air, fire, water, and earth, and consequently the human body which is compounded of these. These too are called stupa by analogy. The annexed cut may give some idea of the figure assigned to each element. The lowest, or the earth, is rectangular. Water, immediately above temples a circle; fire, a triangle; air, a crescent; and ether a smaller acuminated circle. Instead of Chinese names, Sanscrit letters, being the abbreviation of the Sanscrit name of each element, are inscribed on these different parts of the stupa: thus kha, ether; ka, air; ra, fire; va, water; a, earth (?).'
Of course, those familiar with the symbolism of the Golden Dawn system of magic will not fail to see the connection with this arrangement. The square, representing earth, would normally be coloured black; the circle blue for water, the triangle red for fire and the crescent would be yellow for air. The topmost circle would be painted (or left) white to represent spirit. Either way, this symbol represents the four elements with their culmination in Spirit.
See also NG 1:316.]

[165] [Didron, Christian Iconography, fig. 4, 21, 22, 38.]

[166] [Irenaeus, Against Heresies, bk. 1, ch. 15:2. 'But Jesus, he affirms, has the following unspeakable origin. From the mother of all things, that is, the first Tetrad, there came forth the second Tetrad, after the manner of a daughter; and thus an Ogdoad was formed, from which, again, a Decad proceeded: thus was produced a Decad and an Ogdoad. The Decad, then, being joined with the Ogdoad, and multiplying it ten times, gave rise to the number eighty; and, again, multiplying eighty ten times, produced the number eight hundred. Thus, then, the whole number of the letters proceeding from the Ogdoad [multiplied] into the Decad, is eight hundred and eighty-eight. This is the name of Jesus; for this name, if you reckon up the numerical value of the letters, amounts to eight hundred and eighty-eight. Thus, then, you have a clear statement of their opinion as to the origin of the supercelestial Jesus. Wherefore, also, the alphabet of the Greeks contains eight Monads, eight Decads, and eight Hecatads, which present the number eight hundred and eighty-eight, that is, Jesus, who is formed of all numbers; and on this account He is called Alpha and Omega, indicating His origin from all. And, again, they put the matter thus: If the first Tetrad be added up according to the progression of number, the number ten appears. For one, and two, and three, and four, when added together, form ten; and this, as they will have it, is Jesus. Moreover, Chreistus, he says, being a word of eight letters, indicates the first Ogdoad, and this, when multiplied by ten, gives birth to Jesus (888). And Christ the Son, he says, is also spoken of, that is, the Duodecad. For the name Son contains four letters, and Christ (Chreistus) eight, which, being combined, point out the greatness of the Duodecad. But, he alleges, before the Episemon of this name appeared, that is Jesus the Son, mankind were involved in great ignorance and error. But when this name of six letters was manifested (the person bearing it clothing Himself in flesh, that He might come under the apprehension of man's senses, and having in Himself these six and twenty-four letters), then, becoming acquainted with Him, they ceased from their ignorance, and passed from death unto life, this name serving as their guide to the Father of truth. For the Father of all had resolved to put an end to ignorance, and to destroy death. But this abolishing of ignorance was just the knowledge of Him. And therefore that man (Anthropos) was chosen according to His will, having been formed after the image of the [corresponding] power above.' ANCL, 5, 64-6.]

[167] [Ibid., bk. 11:1, 2. 'Let us now look at the inconsistent opinions of those heretics (for there are some two or three of them), how they do not agree in treating the same points, but alike, in things and names, set forth opinions mutually discordant. The first of them, Valentinus, who adapted the principles of the heresy called "Gnostic" to the peculiar character of his own school, taught as follows: He maintained that there is a certain Dyad (twofold being), who is inexpressible by and name, of whom one part should be called Arrhetus (unspeakable), and the other Sige (silence). But of this Dyad a second was produced, one part of whom he names Pater, and the other Aletheia. From this Tetrad, again, arose Logos and Zoe, Anthropos and Ecclesia. These constitute the primary Ogdoad. He next states that from Logos and Zoe ten powers were produced, as we have before mentioned. But from Anthropos and Ecclesia proceeded twelve, one of which separating from the rest, and falling from its original condition, produced the rest of the universe. He also supposed two beings of the name of Iloros, the one of whom has his place between Bythus and the rest of the Pleroma, and divides the created Æons from the uncreated Father, while the other separates their mother from the Pleroma. Christ also was not produced from the Æons within the Pleroma, but was brought forth by the mother who had been excluded from it, in virtue of her remembrance of better things, but not without a kind of shadow. He, indeed, as being masculine, having severed the shadow from himself, returned to the Pleroma; but his mother being left with the shadow, and deprived of her spiritual substance, brought forth another son, namely, the Demiurge, whom he also styles the supreme ruler of all those things which are subject to him. He also asserts that, along with the Demiurge, there was produced a left-hand power, in which particular he agrees with those falsely called Gnostics, of whom we have yet to speak. Sometimes, again, he maintains that Jesus was produced from him who was separated from their mother, and united to the rest, that is, from Theletus, sometimes as springing from him who returned into the Pleroma, that is, from Christ; and at other times still as derived from Anthropos and Ecclesia. And he declares that the Holy Spirit was produced by Aletheia for the inspection and fructification of the Æons, by entering invisibly into them, and that, in this way, the Æons brought forth the plants of truth.
    Secundus again affirms that the primary Ogdoad consists of a right hand and a left hand Tetrad, and teaches that the one of these is called light, and the other darkness. But he maintains that the power which separated from the rest, and fell away, did not proceed directly from the thirty Æons, but from their fruits.' ANCL, 5.]

[168] [Ibid., bk. 18:1. 'And while they affirm such things as these concerning the creation, every one of them generates something new, day by day, according to his ability: for no one is deemed "perfect," who does not develop among them some mighty fictions. It is thus necessary, first, to indicate what things they metamorphose [to their own use] out of the prophetical writings, and next, to refute them. Moses, then, they declare, by his mode of beginning the account of the creation, has at the commencement pointed out the mother of all things when he says, "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth;" for, as they maintain, by naming these four—God, beginning, heaven, and earth,—he set forth their Tetrad. Indicating also its invisible and hidden nature, he said, "Now the earth was invisible and unformed." They will have it, moreover, that he spoke of the second Tetrad, the offspring of the first, in this way—by naming an abyss and darkness, in which were also water, and the Spirit moving upon the water. Then, proceeding to mention the Decad, he names light, day, night, the firmament, the evening, the morning, dry land, sea, plants, and, in the tenth place, trees. Thus, by means of these ten names, he indicated the ten Æons. The power of the Duodecad, again, was shadowed forth by him thus:—He names the sun, moon, stars, seasons, years, whales, fishes, reptiles, birds, quadrupeds, wild beasts, and after all these, in the twelfth place, man. Thus they teach that the Triacontad was spoken of through Moses by the Spirit. Moreover, man also, being formed after the image of the power above, had in himself that ability which flows from the one source. This ability was seated in the region of the brain, from which four faculties proceed, after the image of the Tetrad above, and these are called: the first, sight, the second, hearing, the third, smell, and the fourth, taste. And they say that the Ogdoad is indicated by man in this way: that he possesses two ears, the like number of eyes, also two nostrils, and a twofold taste, namely, of bitter and sweet. Moreover, they teach that the whole man contains the entire image of the Triacontad as follows: In his hands, by means of his fingers, he bears the Decad; and in his whole body the Duodecad, inasmuch as his body is divided into twelve members; for they portion that out, as the body of Truth is divided by them—a point of which we have already spoken. Bat the Ogdoad, as being unspeakable and invisible, is understood as hidden in the viscera.' ANCL, 5, 74-5.]

[169] [Syncellus, Chronology, 28, Eusebius, Chronicon, 5, 8. 'There was a time in which there was nothing but darkness and an abyss of waters, wherein resided most hideous beings, which were produced of a twofold principle. Men appeared with two wings, some with four wings, and two faces. They had one body, but two heads—the one of a man, the other of a woman. They were likewise, in their several organs, both male and female. Other human figures were to be seen with the legs and horns of goats. Some had horses' feet; others had the limbs of a horse behind, but before were fashioned like men, resembling hippocentaurs. Bulls, likewise, bred there with the heads of men; and dogs, with fourfold bodies, and the tails of fishes. Also horses, with the heads of dogs: men, too, and other animals, with the heads and bodies of horses and the tails of fishes. in short, they were creatures with the limbs of every species of animal.' From Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 58.]

[170] [Works, vol. 2, pp.13-4, Threefold Life of Man, ch. 2. par. 44-5. 'The four Forms in themselves are the Anger and the Wrath of God in the Eternal nature: and they are in themselves nothing else but such a source [or property] as standeth in the Darkness, and is not material, but an Originality of the Spirit, without which, there would be nothing.
    For, the four Forms are the cause of all things, as you may perceive, that every life hath poison, yea the poison itself is the life: and therefore many creatures are so venomous, because they proceed from a poisonous Original. And you must know, (though these be the chief causes of Nature) that Nature consisteth in very many more other terms for this maketh the wheel of the Essences, which maketh innumerable Essences: where every Essence is again a Center: so that a whole Birth of quite another Form may appear.']

[171] [Irenaeus, Against Heresies, bk. 3. ch. 11:8. 'It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the "pillar and ground" of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh. From which fact, it is evident that the Word, the Artificer of all. He that sitteth upon the cherubim, and contains all things. He who was manifested to men, has given us the gospel under four aspects, but bound together by one Spirit. As also David says, when entreating His manifestation, "Thou that sittest between the cherubim, shine forth." For the cherubim, too, were four-faced, and their faces were images of the dispensation of the Son of God. For, [as the Scripture] says, "The first living creature was like a lion," symbolizing His effectual working, His leadership, and loyal power; the second [living creature] was like a calf, signifying [His] sacrificial and sacerdotal order; but "the third had, as it were, the face as of a man,"—an evident description of His advent as a human being; "the fourth was like a flying eagle," pointing out the gift of the Spirit hovering with His wings over the church. And therefore the Gospels are in accord with these things, among which Christ Jesus is seated. For that according to John relates His original, effectual, and glorious generation from the Father, thus declaring, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." Also, "all things were made by Him, and without Him was nothing made." For this reason, too, is that Gospel full of all confidence, for such is His person. But that according to Luke, taking up [His] priestly character, commenced with Zacharias the priest offering sacrifice to God. For now was made ready the fatted calf, about to be immolated for the finding again of the younger son. Matthew, again, relates His generation as a man, saying, "The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham;" and also, "The birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise." This, then, is the Gospel of His humanity; for which reason it is, too, that [the character of] a humble and meek man is kept up through the whole Gospel. Mark, on the other hand, commences with [a reference to] the prophetical spirit coming down from on high to men, saying, "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, as it is written in Esaias the prophet,"—pointing to the winged aspect of the Gospel; and on this account he made a compendious and cursory narrative, for such is the prophetical character. And the Word of God Himself used to converse with the ante-Mosaic patriarchs, in accordance with His divinity and glory; but for those under the law he instituted a sacerdotal and liturgical service. Afterwards, being made man for us. He sent the gift of the celestial Spirit over all the earth, protecting us with His wings. Such, then, as was the course followed by the Son of God, so was also the form of the living creatures; and such as was the form of the living creatures, so was also the character of the Gospel. For the living creatures are quadriform, and the Gospel is quadriform, as is also the course followed by the Lord. For this reason were four principal covenants given to the human race: one, prior to the deluge, under Adam; the second, that after the deluge, under Noah; the third, the giving of the law, under Moses; the fourth, that which renovates man, and sums up all things in itself by means of the gospel, raising and bearing men upon its wings into the heavenly kingdom.' ANCL, 5.]

[172] [Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 239. 'The conceptions which underlie the Hindu creed of divine animals were not ill displayed by that Hindu who, being shown the pictures of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John with their respective man, lion, ox, and eagle, explained these quite naturally and satisfactorily as the avatars or vehicles of the four evangelists.']

[173] [Drummond, Oedipus Judaicus, pl. 2, from Kircher.]

[174] [Rit. ch. 13. Cf. Renouf.]

[175] [Chambers, Book of Days, vol. 2, p. 519. 'There is a remarkable uniformity in the fireside-customs of this night all over the United Kingdom. Nuts and apples are everywhere in requisition, and consumed in immense numbers. Indeed the name of Nutcrack Night, by which Halloween is known in the north of England, indicates the predominance of the former of these articles in making up the entertainments of the evening. They are not only cracked and eaten, but made the means of vaticination in love-affairs.'
Brayley, A Topographical History of Surrey, vol. 3, p. 41. 'Another ancient custom (but of the origin of which nothing has been ascertained) was carried on, even in the church itself, until a time far within the recollection of many aged parishioners,—namely, that of the congregation cracking nuts during the performance of divine service, on the Sunday next before the eve of St. Michael's day. Hence the long-remembered phrase of Crack-nut Sunday, but the practice which gave rise to the appellation, like many other peculiarities appertaining to this ancient borough, has fallen into desuetude; an effectual stand against its continuance having been made by the church officers about sixty years ago. The custom was not restrained to the junior branches of the congregation, but was practised alike by young and old; and the cracking noise was often so powerful, that the minister was obliged to suspend his reading, or discourse, until greater quietness was obtained.']

[176] [Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, vol. 1, ch. 2, p. 293. Wrong p. no. Unable to trace.]

[177] [Fragment 4 in Cory, Ancient Fragments, 1832 ed. Unable to trace, but see Assmann, Moses the Egyptian, p. 51, from Psellus Justus, Cohort. ad Graecos, 15.
Macrobius, Saturnalia, bk. 1.18.17.]

[178] [Macrobius, Saturnalia, bk. 1.18.]

[179] [Chabas, Melanges, 3rd series, vol. 1, p. 247.
See also Read and Bryant, 'A Mythological Text from Memphis,' PSBA, 23, here.]

[180] [Rit. ch. 141. 'Ptah, the great Tatt, the throne of the Sun. Sole type (?) in the roofed House.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf.]

[181] [Rit. ch. 150. 'Oh that Abode coming in sight! there is the glow of fire in its light [the Spirit]. There is a snake there, Ruhak is its name. He is about 7 cubits in the length of his back, living off the dead, strangling their Spirits. Go back, Ruhak, biting with the mouth to catch his fishes [prey], fascinating or striking cold with his eyes.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf.]

[182] [BB 2:100.]

[183] [Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, vol. 3, p. 417. 'Napatecutli, that is to say, (four times lord) was the god of the mat-makers and of all workers in water.']

[184] [Moor, Hindu Pantheon, pl. 63.]

[185] [Kerr, 'Druid Circles as Burial Places,' NQ, 4th ser., 12, 206. See full text.]

[186] [Baldwin, Ancient America, fig. 13, 15.]

[187] [Mitchell, Past in the Present, fig. 49.]

[188] [Ximenes, Las Historias del Origen de los Indios, p. 5. 'In primitive geography the figure of the earth is a square plain; in the legend of the Quichés it is "shaped as a square, divided into four parts, marked with lines, measured with cords, and suspended from the heavens by a cord to its four corners and its four sides."' From Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 68.]

[189] [Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, p. 102, 'Ring and Bridecake.' 'In the North, slices of the bridecake are put through the wedding ring: they are afterwards laid under pillows, at night, to cause young persons to dream of their lovers. Douce says this custom is not peculiar to the north of England. It seems to prevail generally. The pieces of the cake must be drawn nine times through the wedding ring.']

[190] ['This may have originated in the Popish hallowing of this ring, of which the following form occurs in the Doctrine of the Masse Booke, from Wyttonberge, by Nicholas Dorcaster, 1554: "The hallowing of the woman s ring at wedding. Thou Maker and Conserver of mankinde, gever of spiritual grace and graunter of eternal salvation, Lord, send thy X blessing upon this ring, (here the Protestant translator observes in the margin, 'Is not here wise geare?') that she which shall weare it, maye be armed wyth the vertue of heavenly defence, and that it maye profit her to eternal salvation, thorowe Christ," &c. "A prayer.  Halow thou, Lord, this ring, which we blesse in thy holye Name: that what woman soever shall weare it, may stand fast in thy peace, and continue in thy wyl, and live and grow and waxe old in thy love, and be multiplied into that length of daies, thorow our Lord, &c. Then let holy water be sprinkled upon the ryng."' From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, p.106.]

[191] ['In the Hereford, York, and Salisbury Missals the ring is directed to be put first upon the thumb, afterwards upon the second, then on the third, and lastly, on the fourth finger, where it is to remain, "quia in illo digito est queedam vena procedens usque ad cor."' From Brand, Ibid., vol. 2, p. 104.]

[192] [Durandus, Rationale Diuinorum Officiorum, bk. 5, ch. 2 and J. Beleth. Explicatio Divinorum Officiorum, ch. 39, de Evangelio. 'The Greeks, who were well versed in the refinements of mysticism, naturally adopted that form of benediction. The subjoined directions for depicting the Divine Hand in the act of blessing, are extracted from the "Guide for Painting," a Byzantine manuscript; they commence thus: "When you desire to represent a hand in the act of blessing, you must not join the three fingers together, but let the thumb be crossed on the third finger, so that the first, called the index, may remain open, and the second finger be slightly bent. Those two fingers form the name of Christ. In fact, the first finger remaining open signifies an I (iota), and the curvature of the second forms a c (sigma). The thumb is placed across the third finger, and the fourth, or little finger, is slightly bent, thus indicating the word Christos, X.C. The union of the thumb with the third finger makes a X (chi), and the curvature of the little finger forms a c (sigma), and these two letters form the 'sigle,' or abridgment of Christos. Thus, through the divine providence of the Creator, the fingers of a man's hand, though more or less long or short, may be placed in such a manner as to figure the name of Christ." This arrangement of the fingers appears to be symbolic. Grulielmus Durandus and Jean Beleth affirm that that manner of blessing symbolises the Trinity, and that the three open fingers signify the three Divine persons.' Quoted in Didron, Christian Iconography, vol. 1, pp. 407-8.]

[193] [Didron, ibid., fig. 52.]

[194] [Moor, Hindu Pantheon, pl. 75.]

[195] [Rit. ch. 1. 'I am Tat, the son of Tat, conceived in Tat, born in Tat.' Cf. Renouf.]

[196] [Inman, Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, vol. 1, p. 151, fig. 38, citing JRAS, 18, 391.]

[197] [Archaic Sculpturings of Cups, Circles &c.]

[198] [Rochette, 'de la Croix Ansee,' in MARS, pl. 2, nos. 8, 9, also 16, 2, no. 320.]

[199] [Discovery of Witchcraft, p. 152 (1665). 'In some countries they runne out of the doores in time of tempest, blessing themselves with a cheese, whereupon there was a crosse made with a ropes end upon ascension daie. Also three hailestones to be throwne into the fier in a tempest, and thereupon to be said three Pater nosters, and three Aves, S. Johns gospell, and in fine fugiat tempestas, is a present remedie.' Or p. 218, 1st ed.]

[200] [This could be considered a too simplistic explanation on Massey's part, viewing these writers on phallicism as claiming that the Tau was based on the male organ purely by shape alone. Their research was far more broader than that, although admittedly Inman did make such a statement. See my essay for a discussion of his Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names.]

[201] [La Roma Sotterranea Christiana Descitta ed Illustrata, vol. 1, p. 309.]

[202] [Madden, History of Jewish Coinage and of Money in the Old and New Testament, p. 244. This appears to be the illustration Massey is referring to for it has the sphinx on one side, yet the other side contains no figure of a fourfold phallus. Massey here could be accused of seeing phalluses everywhere like Knight and Inman, as remarked in a previous note. See 200 above.]

[203] [Maffei, Museum Veronense, p. 484.]

[204] [ARSB, 10, 124, pl. 2.]

[205] [Knight, A Discourse on the Worship of Priapus, plate, 2 fig. 3]

[206] [Irenaeus, Against Heresies, bk. 1, 4:1. 'The following are the transactions which they narrate as having occurred outside of the Pleroma: The enthymesis of that Sophia who dwells above, which they also term Achamoth, being removed from the Pleroma, together with her passion, they relate to have, as a matter of course, become violently excited in those places of darkness and vacuity [to which she had been banished]. For she was excluded from light and the Pleroma, and was without form or figure, like an untimely birth, because she had received nothing [from a male parent]. But the Christ dwelling on high took pity upon her; and having extended himself through and beyond Stauros, "he imparted a figure to her, but merely as respected substance, and not so as to convey intelligence.'' Having effected this, he withdrew his influence, and returned, leaving Achamoth to herself, in order that she, becoming; sensible of her suffering; as being; severed from the Pleroma, might be influenced by the desire of better things, while she possessed in the meantime a kind of odour of immortality left in her by Christ and the Holy Spirit. Wherefore also she is called by two names—Sophia after her father (for Sophia is spoken of as being her father), and Holy Spirit from that Spirit who is along with Christ. Having then obtained a form, along; with intelligence, and being; immediately deserted by that Logos who had been invisibly present with her—that is, by Christ—she strained herself to discover that light which had forsaken her, but could not effect her purpose, inasmuch as she was prevented by Horos. And as Horos thus obstructed her further progress, he exclaimed, IAO, whence, they say, this name Iao derived its origin. And when she could not pass by Horos on account of that passion in which she had been involved, and because she alone had been left without, she then resigned herself to every sort of that manifold and varied state of passion to which she was subject; and thus she suffered grief on the one hand because she had not obtained the object of her desire, and fear on the other hand, lest life itself should fail her, as light had already done, while, in addition, she was in the greatest perplexity. All these feelings were associated with ignorance. And this ignorance of hers was not, like that of her mother, the first Sophia, an Æon, due to degeneracy by means of passion, but to an [innate] opposition [of nature to knowledge]. Moreover, another kind of passion fell upon her (Achamoth), namely, that of desiring to return to him who gave her life.' ANCL, 5.]

[207] [Kidd, China, or Illustrations of the Symbols, etc, p. 94. 'In the classification of characters according to their final sound in a Chinese dictionary, entitled, "The Source of Characters engraven on Bells and Tripods," there are two ancient forms of teen, "a field," the one consisting of a cross, formed of straight lines within a circle and through its centre, the other of waving lines crossing each other; the definitions of which, under the modern form, are, to plant grain in rows, arranged in order, a field laid out in plots, a cultivated field, to plough, to hunt.']

[208] [Augusti, Handbuch der Christlichen Archäologie, vol. 2, p. 441. 'The exercises of the catechumens until their union with believers, were wholly directed with reference to their preparation for baptism. They consisted generally in attending to various catechetical and doctrinal instructions, the reading of the Scriptures, etc. The advanced class, before baptism, were subject to repeated examinations, and to a kind of exorcism accompanied with imposition of hands, the sign of the cross, and insufflation, the breathing of the priest upon them. They also passed many days in fasting and prayer, and in learning the words of their creed and the Lord's prayer.' The Eng. tr., p. 12.]

[209] [Potts, 'Crossing One's Breath,' NQ, 5th ser., 6, 505. 'A curious custom is to be found among young boys in Pennsylvania, and possibly other parts of the Union, of solemnly making an assertion and "crossing their breath," as it is called, which consists in placing the hand on the mouth, breathing on it, and making the sign of the cross by drawing it from left to right across the heart. "If it is not so, I will cross my breath," means, among boys, an oath, one might say, equivalent to "on my life." These children, mostly descendants of the ancient Quakers, have not perhaps even seen the modern sign of the cross as used by the Roman Catholics of the present day, which differs from the above in touching the fingers to the forehead, and then lightly touching each shoulder, or drawing the hand across the breast. As these children are of families certainly not Roman Catholic for two hundred years or more, and never associated with Catholic influences, this may be the ancient form of making the sign of the cross, and is at the least of high antiquity.']

[210] [Moor, Hindu Pantheon, pl. 70 & 75.]

[211] [Riggs, Dictionary of the Dacotah. 'In the mythology of the Dakotas, who inhabited that region, the winds were always conceived as birds, and for the cross they have a native name literally signifying "the mosquito hawk spread out."' From Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 97.]

[212] [Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 97. 'The Creeks at the festival of the Busk, celebrated, as we have seen, to the four winds, and according to their legends instituted by them, commenced with making the new fire. The manner of this was "to place four logs in the centre of the square, end to end, forming a cross, the outer ends pointing to the cardinal points; in the centre of the cross the new fire is made."—Hawkins, Sketch of the Creek Country, p. 75.']

[213] [Unable to trace.]

[214] [La Roma Sotterranea Christiana Descitta ed Illustrata.]

[215] [Lundy, Monumental Christianity, fig. 13.]

[216] [Eaton, Rome in the Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, pp. 14-5. '"With Holy Thursday our miseries began [that is, from crowding]. On this disastrous day we went before nine to the Sistine chapel .... and beheld a procession led by the inferior orders of clergy, followed up by the Cardinals in superb dresses, bearing long wax tapers in their hands, and ending with the Pope himself, who walked beneath a crimson canopy, with his head uncovered, bearing the Host in a box; and this being, as you know, the real flesh and blood of Christ, was carried from the Sistine chapel through the intermediate hall to the Paulina chapel, where it was deposited in the sepulchre prepared to receive it beneath the altar I never could learn why Christ was to be buried before He was dead, for, as the crucifixion did not take place till Good Friday, it seems odd to inter Him on Thursday. His body, however, is laid in the sepulchre, in all the churches of Rome, where this rite is practised, on Thursday forenoon, and it remains there till Saturday at mid-day, when, for some reason best known to them selves, He is supposed to rise from the grave amidst the firing of cannon, and blowing of trumpets, and jingling of bells, which have been carefully tied up ever since the dawn of Holy Thursday, lest the devil should get into them."' From Hislop, The Two Babylons, p. 155.]

[217] [Ibid., vol. 3, p. 148-9. '"The effect of the blazing cross of fire suspended from the dome above the confession or tomb of St. Peter's, was strikingly brilliant at night. It is covered with innumerable lamps, which have the effect of one blaze of fire The whole church was thronged with a vast multitude of all classes and countries, from royalty to the meanest beggar, all gazing upon this one object. In a few minutes the Pope and all his Cardinals descended into St. Peter's, and room being kept for them by the Swiss guards, the aged Pontiff .... prostrated himself in silent adoration before the CROSS OF FIRE. A long train of Cardinals knelt before him, whose splendid robes and attendant train-bearers, formed a striking contrast to the humility of their attitude."' From Hislop, ibid., p. 155.]

[218] [Divine Comedy, pt. 3, 'Paradise.' Unable to trace.]

[219] [Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, p. 59. 'Martin, p. 262, speaking of Iona, says: "There is a stone erected here, concerning which the credulous natives say, that whoever reaches out his arm along the stone three times, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, shall never err in steering the helm of a vessel." Ibid. p. 59, speaking of the island Borera, he says: "There is a stone in the form of a cross, in the row opposite to St. Mary's church, about five foot high: the natives call it the Water-cross, for the ancient inhabitants had a custom of erecting this sort of cross to procure rain, and when they had got enough they laid it flat on the ground; but this custom is now disused."' From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 319.]

[220] [Jacobus de Voragine, 'De inventione sanctae crucis,' in Legenda Aurea, (1850 ed.), pp. 305-11.
Ibid., 'De Extraxtione Sancti Crucis.' Unable to trace in this work.]

[221] [St. Mary of Egypt (who flourished about 400 AD) is mentioned in the Legenda Aurea. See ch. 56, pp. 246-9. 'Maria Aegyptiaca, quae peccatrix appellatur, annis in cremo artissimam vltam duxit, qnam circa annos domini tepmore Claudii intravit. Quidam autcm abbas nomine Zosiinas, dum Jordanera transiisset et ercmum maguam percurreret, si forte aliqnem sanctum patrem inveniret, vidit quendam ambulautem nudo nigroque corpore et ex incendio solis exusto. Hoc auteni erat Maria Aegyptiaca statinique haec fugam arripuit et Zosimas post eam velocius currere coepit. Tunc ait illa: abbas Zosima, quid me persequeris? Ignosce mihi, non possum faciem meam ad te convertere, eo quod raulicr sura et nuda, sed pallium tuum mihi porrige, ut possim sine verecundia te videre. Qui se nominari audiens stupcfactus pallium tribuit et in terrain prostratus, ut se benediceret, rogavit. Cuiilla: ad te, pater, benedictio ælagis spectat, quem sacerdotii dignitas ornat. Ille ut audivit, quod nomen et officium ejus sciret, amplius miralatur et se benetlici obnixius precabatur. Tunc illa: benetlictus Deus redemtor animarum nostrarum. Cumque illa extensis manibus oraret, yitut eam quasi uuius cubiti mensura clevari a terra. Tunc senex tlubitare coepit, ne forte spiritus esset et fingentlo orationem faceret. Cui illa; satisfaciat tibi Deus, jui me peccatricem mulierem immuutlum spiritum existiluasti. Tunc Zosimas illam per ilominum conjuravit, ut contiitionem suam et narrare tleberct. Cui illa: ignosce mihi, pator, tjuia, si tibi statum meum narravero, yelut a serpente territus fugies et aures tuae a sermonibus meis contaminabuntur et aer a sortlibus polluetur. Cumque ille vehementcr ustaret, tlixit: ego, frater, iu Aegjpto nata sum, actalis meae anno Alexautlriaiu vein ibique annis publice libitlini me subjeci et iiulli ullatenus me negavi. Cum autem bomines regionis illius pro adoiantla sancla cruce Hierosolimam atlscentlerent, rogavi nautas, ut me secum nutterent proficisci. Cum vero me de naulo requirerent, iliximou habeo, fratres, aliutl nauluiu, seil pro naulo corpus habeatis meuni, sicque sumseruut me et corpus meum nauli gratia habuerunt. Cum autem Hierosolimam pervenissem et pro adorantla cruce usque ad fores ecclfsiae cum aliis devenissem, subito et iuvisibiliter repulsam patior nec intus nilrarc permittor. Iteruiu aulein atque iteruni perveni usque ad limen januae et subito injuriam patiebar repulsae. Cum lanien omnes liberuin jiabereiit aditum nec aliquod invenirent impedimentum, redieus igitur ad me et cogitans, quod hoc niihi ob scelcrum meoruiu immanitatem accideret, pcctus meum coepi manibus tundere, lacrimas amarissimas fundere et a cordis inlimo grailer suspirare, respiciciisque idi ibi nuagineui beatae virginis Mariae. Tunc ipsam lacrymabiliter exorare coepi, ut peccatorum meorum veniaiu impelraret et ad adorandam crucem sanctam rac intrare permitleret, promittens me saeculo abrenuntiaturam et de caetcro caste mansuram. Cumuc hoc orassem et in nomine beatae virginis fiduciam recepissera, fores ilerum ecclesiac adii et sine aliquo impedimenlo ecclesiam intravi. Cum autem sanctam crucera devotissime adorassem, quidam niihi tres nulumos tribuil, de quibus Ires panes cum, audivique vocem diccntem raihi: si Jordanem hansieris, salva cris. Jordanem igitur transivi et in hoc descrtum veni, ubi annuis nullura penitus hommera idens inansi, illi autem Ires panes, quos mecum deluli, inslar hipidis per tempora duraveruul et anuis mihi ex his conicdendo sulecerunt, vestimenta autem mea jamdudum putrcfacta suiit, anuis ia hoc deserto a tentationibus carnaliljus molestata fui, sed nunc per Dei gratiam omnes vici: cece omnia opera mea tibi narravi et rogo, ut pro me ad Deum preces fundas. Tunc senex ad terram prostratus in famula sua dominum benedixit. Cui illa: obscero te, ut in die dominicae coenae ad Jordanem redoas et corpus dominicum tecum fereas; ego ibidem tibi occurram et de manu tua corpus sacrum Silcipiam, nam a dic, qua huc veni, communionem domini non accepi. Rediens igitur senex ad monastcrium voluto anno, dum dies coenae appropinquaret, tulit corpus dominicum et usque ad ripam Jordanis veniens ex alia ripa mulierem stantem prospexit, quae super aquas facto crucis signaculo ivit et ad senem usque pervenit. Quam videns senex obstupuit et ad pedes cjus humiliter se prostravit. Cui illa: vide, ne feccris, cum sacramenta dominica penes te habeas et sacerdotii dignitate refulgeas, sed obsecro, ut sequenti anno ad me pater, redire digneris. Tunc illa facto signo crucis super Jordanis aquas ivit ct eremi solitudinem petivit. Senex vero ad suum mouasterium rediens sequenti anno ad locum, in quo prifflum secum locutus fuerat, venit et eam ibidem exspirasse reperit. Qui lacrjmari coepit et ipsaui tangere non praesumsit, dixitque ultra se: ego quidem corpusculum sanctae sepelire volebam, sed timeo, ne hoc sibi displiceat. Hoc eo cogitante vidit juxta caput suum litteras in terra descriptas ita continentes: sepeli, Zosima, Mariae corpuscuium, redde terrac pulverem suuin et ora pro me ad dorainum, ad cujus praeceptum secundo die Aprilis reliqui hoc saeculum. Tunc senex pro certo cognovit, quod mox, ut domini sacramentum accepit et ad descrtum rediit, vitam linivit illudque desertum, quod Zosimas per dierum spatium vix ambulavit, illa in una hora percurrit et ad Deum migravit. Cumque senex tcrram foderet, sed nequiret, vidit lconem ad se venientem mansucle, dixitque illi: sancta huc mulier praecepit sepeliri corpus suura et ego, cum sim senex, fodere non possum nec etiam habco ferrainentum, tu ergo terram fode, ut possimus cjus corpus sanctissimum sepehre. Tunc leo coepit fodere ct aptam foveaiu praeparavit, quo peracto ico ut agnus mansuctus abiit et senex ad suum monasterium fflorificans Deum venit.']

[222] [Sermo de Paschette?]

[223] [Moures, Egyptian Calendar, pp. 21 & 68.]

[224] [Ibid., p. 69.]

[225] [Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 31.]

[226] [Sermon, 160.]

[227] [Waitz, Anthropologie, p. 32.]

[228] [Source.]

[229] [Terneaux. Squier, Nicaragua, p. 493. 'Quetzalcoatl, god of the winds, bore as his sign of office "a mace like the cross of a bishop;" his robe was covered with them strewn like flowers, and its adoration was throughout connected with his worship.' From Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 96-7. Footnote 1: 'On the worship of the cross in Mexico and Yucatan and its invariable meaning as representing the gods of rain, consult Ixtlilxochitl, Histoire des Chichimeques, p. 5.']

[230] [Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, vol. 3, p. 352. 'She appeared often in the guise of a great lady, wearing such apparel as was used in the palace; she was also heard at night in the air shouting and even roaring. Besides her name Cioacoatl, which means snake-woman, she was known as Tonantzin, that is to say, our mother. She was arrayed in white robes, and her hair was arranged in front, over her forehead, in little curls that crossed each other. It was a custom with her to carry a cradle on her shoulders, as one that carries a child in it, and after setting it down in the market-place beside the other women, to disappear.']

[231] [Lasso de la Vega, Commentarios Reales.]

[232] [Account of the Abipones, pt. 2, ch. 4. 'I saw not only a cross marked on the foreheads of all the Abipones, but likewise black crosses woven in the red woollen garments of many. It is a very surprizing circumstance that they did this before they were acquainted with the religion of Christ, when the signification and merits of the cross were unknown to them. Perhaps they learnt some veneration for the cross, or gained an idea of its possessing great virtues from their Spanish captives, or from those Abipones who had lived in captivity amongst the Spaniards.' Or vol. 2, p. 20, of the Eng. ed.]

[233] [Rit. ch. 39. 'The Apophis is overthrown; their cords bind the South, North, East, and West. Their cords are on him. Akar [Victory, or the Sphinx] has overthrown him. Ha-ru-bah [he who is over the Gate of the Inundation] has knotted him.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf.]

[234] [The Last Journals of Dr. David Livingstone, vol. 2, p. 179 (18th Apr. 1872). 'The cross has been used—not as a Christian emblem certainly, but from time immemorial as the form in which the copper ingot of Katañga is moulded—this is met with quite commonly, and is called Handiplé Mahandi. Our capital letter I (called Vigera) is the large form of the bars of copper, each about 60 or 70 lbs. weight, seen all over Central Africa and from Katañga.']

[235] [Bonwick, Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians, p. 198. 'Mr. Oldfield has given remarkable particulars about such a festival on the Murchison Eiver of Western Australia. It was called the Caa-ro, Strange to say, it was attended with a great gathering of eggs, and it was held in the spring. Women were not present at the ceremonies. The men prepared a large elongated pit of a suggestive shape, and surrounded it with bushes. Bound this they danced by night, and feasted on the eggs by day. The phallic character of the festival may be gathered from Mr. Oldfield's words. "Every figure of their dances," he says, "every gesture, the burden of all their songs, is calculated to inflame their passions. ... As they dance they carry the spear before them to simulate Priapus." The South Australian dance about the Palyertatta reminds one of the Bacchanals. It was a spear upholding a framework of cross sticks, with bunches of feathers at their ends. Sometimes the spear was decorated with shavings of wood as well as bunches of feathers, with human hair wound round the whole length of the spear. It is certainly remarkable that the Lingam worship should have been known in India before the conquest of that country by the Aryans.']

[236] [Branch, 'West Indian Superstitions,' CRev, 26, 764. 'Simplest of all cures, however, is a small bit of paper, carefully made in the form of a cross, then wet, and stuck on a baby's forehead, to take away the hiccough. This is a true homoeopathic remedy in another way. It can't hurt you, even if it do yon no good.']

[237] [Natural History, bk. 28:17.]

[238] [The Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 370. 'Another vase-handle, found in the same place, and apparently of the same ware, bears as a potter's mark a cross within a semicircular mark. This cross, it is needless to remark, has no relation to the sign of salvation.'
As Massey gives no source, I presume it is this one, and this is the closest I can find to the ref. No mention is made of a Tau-cross in this work or any other by Warren. This section was also reprinted in Warren's 1888 work, Survey of Western Palestine, p. 534.]

[239] [Adversus Gentes, bk. 5:19 (?). Not sure of ref., but poss. this one which reads as follows: 'We shall pass by the wild Bacchanalia also, which are named in Greek Omophagia, in which with seeming frenzy and the loss of your senses you twine snakes about you; and, to show yourselves full of the divinity and majesty of the god, tear in pieces with gory mouths the flesh of loudly-bleating goats. Those hidden mysteries of Cyprian Venus we pass by also, whose founder is said to have been King Cinyras, in which being initiated, they bring stated fees as to a harlot, and carry away phalli, given as signs of the propitious deity. Let the rites of the Corybantes also be consigned to oblivion, in which is revealed that sacred mystery, a brother slain by his brothers, parsley sprung from the blood of the murdered one, that vegetable forbidden to be placed on tables, lest the manes of the dead should be unappeasably offended. But those other Bacchanalia also we refuse to proclaim, in which there is revealed and taught to the initiated a secret not to be spoken; how Liber, when taken up with boyish sports, was torn asunder by the Titans; how he was cut up limb by limb by them also, and thrown into pots that he might be cooked; how Jupiter, allured by the sweet savour, rushed unbidden to the meal, and discovering what had been done, overwhelmed the revellers with his terrible thunder, and hurled them to the lowest part of Tartarus.'
I can find no ref. to a 'handled cross'. 
Or poss. ibid., 5.28: 'I confess that I have long been hesitating, looking on every side, shuffling, doubling Tellene perplexities; while I am ashamed to mention those Alimontian mysteries in which Greece erects phalli in honour of father Bacchus, and the whole district is covered with images of men's fascina. The meaning of this is obscure perhaps, and it is asked why it is done. Whoever is ignorant of this, let him learn, and, wondering at what is so important, ever keep it with reverent care in a pure heart.' Trs., Bryce and Campbell.]

[240] [Source.]

[241] [King, The Gnostics and their Remains, Ancient and Medieval, p. 91. 'Such an acceptation of Anubis is strangely adopted in a sard of my own, which offers to the first view that most orthodox and primitive Christian figure the Good Shepherd, bearing a lamb upon his shoulders, a crook in his hand, the loins girt with a belt having long and flowing ends; but on closer examination the figure resolves itself into the double-headed Anubis, the head of the lamb doing duty for that of the jackal springing from the same shoulders as the man's, whilst the curved end of the girdle becomes the long and curly tail of the beast. By this, too, we are enabled rightly to understand a rude drawing lately discovered on the wall of a vault on the Palatine, which represents this jackal-headed figure nailed to the cross with the inscription .... ; in reality the work of some pious Gnostic, but which is usually looked upon as a heathen blasphemy, because the jackal's head is taken for that of an ass. Here, too, we find an illustration of Tertullian's meaning when he says (Apol. xvi.) to his opponent, "Like many others you have dreamed that an ass' head is our god. But a new version of our god has lately been made public in Rome ever since the time that a certain hireling convict of a bull-fighter put forth a picture with some such inscription as this, 'The God of the Christians, ONOKOIHTHZ.' He was there depicted with the ears of an ass, with one of his feet hoofed, holding in his hand a book, and clad in the toga." An almost exact description this of the Anubis figure given by Matter, PI. II. C. No. 1, save that instead of the book he holds a palm branch and caduceus. The same calumny was transferred somewhat later by the Christians themselves to the account of the Gnostics. Not being acquainted with the Egyptian animal, they mistook (perhaps intentionally) the jackal's head for that of an ass, which, to say the truth, it greatly resembles in the rude drawing of our gems. Thus we find Epiphanius at the end of the fourth century asserting (Haeres. xxvi.) that ''the Gnostic Sabaoth has, according to some, the face of an aw, according to others, that of a hog; on which last account he hath forbidden the Jews to eat swine's flesh." This last notion Petronius alludes to in his
    "Judaeus licet et porcinum numen adoret."'
See plate.]

[242] [Eusebius, Life of Constantine. bk. 1, ch. 28. 'Accordingly he called on him with earnest prayer and supplications that he would reveal to him who he was, and stretch forth his right hand to help him in his present difficulties. And while he was thus praying with fervent entreaty, a most marvellous sign appeared to him from heaven, the account of which it might have been hard to believe had it been related by any other person. But since the victorious emperor himself long afterwards declared it to the writer of this history, when he was honoured with his acquaintance and society, and confirmed his statement by an oath, who could hesitate to accredit the relation, especially since the testimony of after-time has established its truth? He said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, Conquer by this. At this sight he himself was struck with amazement, and his whole army also, which followed him on this expedition, and witnessed the miracle.' Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd ser., vol. 1.]

[243] [Massey errs here. The ref. should be Ambrose, in his fortieth epistle, who says: 'But suppose that no one will cite the Bishop to do this; for this is what I have begged of your Clemency, and though I have not yet read that the edict is revoked, I will nevertheless assume it to be so. But what if other more timid persons, from a fear of death offer to rebuild the synagogue from their own funds, or the Count, finding this previously ordained, should himself command it to be restored at the expense of the Christians? Your Majesty will then have an apostate Count, and you will entrust your victorious banner, your labarum, which is consecrated by the name of Christ, to one who is the restorer of the synagogue which knows not Christ. Command the labarum to be carried into the synagogue, and let us see if they do not resist.' Massey borrows this from Hislop, but misplaces the ref. See my essay.]

[244] [Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. 5, pp. 283-4. 'A still more curious fact may be mentioned respecting this hieroglyphic character—that the early Christians of Egypt adopted it in lieu of the cross, which was afterwards substituted for it, prefixing it to inscriptions in the same manner as the cross in later times. For though Dr. Young had some scruples in believing the, statement of Sir A. Edmonstone, that it holds this position in the sepulchres of the Great Oasis, I can attest that such is the case, and that numerous inscriptions headed by the tau are preserved to the present day on early Christian monuments.']

[245] [Sozomen, Ecclesiastia Historia, bk. 7:15. 'Paulinus, bishop of Antioch, died about this period, and those who had been convened into a church with him persisted in their aversion to Flavian, although his religious sentiments were precisely the same as their own, because he had violated the oath he had formerly made to Meletius. They, therefore, elected Evagrius as their bishop. Evagrius did not long survive this appointment, and although Flavian prevented the election of another bishop, those who had seceded from communion with him, still continued to hold their assemblies apart.
    About this period, the bishop of Alexandria, to whom the temple of Dionysus had, at his own request, been granted by the emperor, converted the edifice into a church. The statues were removed, the adyta were exposed; and, in order to cast contumely on the pagan mysteries, he made a procession for the display of these objects; the phalli, and whatever other object had been concealed in the adyta which really was, or seemed to be, ridiculous, he made a public exhibition of. The pagans, amazed at so unexpected an exposure, could not suffer it in silence, but conspired together to attack the Christians. They killed many of the Christians, wounded others, and seized the Serapion, a temple which was conspicuous for beauty and vastness and which was seated on an eminence. This they converted into a temporary citadel; and hither they conveyed many of the Christians, put them to the torture, and compelled them to offer sacrifice. Those who refused compliance were crucified, had both legs broken, or were put to death in some cruel manner. When the sedition had prevailed for some time, the rulers came and urged the people to remember the laws, to lay down their arms, and to give up the Serapion. There came then Romanus, the general of the military legions in Egypt; and Evagrius was the prefect of Alexandria. As their efforts, however, to reduce the people to submission were utterly in vain, they made known what had transpired to the emperor. Those who had shut themselves up in the Serapion prepared a more spirited resistance, from fear of the punishment that they knew would await their audacious proceedings, and they were further instigated to revolt by the inflammatory discourses of a man named Olympius, attired in the garments of a philosopher, who told them that they ought to die rather than neglect the gods of their fathers. Perceiving that they were greatly dispirited by the destruction of the idolatrous statues, he assured them that such a circumstance did not warrant their renouncing their religion; for that the statues were composed of corruptible materials, and were mere pictures, and therefore would disappear; whereas, the powers which had dwelt within them, had flown to heaven. By such representations as these, he retained the multitude with him in the Serapion.
    When the emperor was informed of these occurrences, he declared that the Christians who had been slain were blessed, inasmuch as they had been admitted to the honour of martyrdom, and had suffered in defence of the faith. He offered free pardon to those who had slain them, hoping that by this act of clemency they would be the more readily induced to embrace Christianity; and he commanded the demolition of the temples in Alexandria which had been the cause of the popular sedition. It is said that, when this imperial edict was read in public, the Christians uttered loud shouts of joy, because the emperor laid the odium of what had occurred upon the pagans. The people who were guarding the Serapion were so terrified at hearing these shouts, that they took to flight, and the Christians immediately obtained possession of the spot, which they have retained ever since. I have been informed that, on the night preceding this occurrence, Olympius heard the voice of one singing hallelujah in the Serapion. The doors were shut and everything was still; and as he could see no one, but could only hear the voice of the singer, he at once understood what the sign signified; and unknown to any one he quitted the Serapion and embarked for Italy. It is said that when the temple was being demolished, some stones were found, on which were hieroglyphic characters in the form of a cross, which on being submitted to the inspection of the learned, were interpreted as signifying the life to come. These characters led to the conversion of several of the pagans, as did likewise other inscriptions found in the same place, and which contained predictions of the destruction of the temple. It was thus that the Serapion was taken, and, a little while after, converted into a church; it received the name of the Emperor Arcadius.
    There were still pagans in many cities, who contended zealously in behalf of their temples; as, for instance, the inhabitants of Petraea and of Areopolis, in Arabia; of Raphi and Gaza, in Palestine; of Heriopolis in Phoenicia; and of Apamea, on the river Axius, in Syria. I have been informed that the inhabitants of the last-named city often armed the men of Galilee and the peasants of Lebanon in defence of their temples; and that at last, they even carried their audacity to such a height, as to slay a bishop named Marcellus. This bishop had commanded the demolition of all the temples in the city and villages, under the supposition that it would not be easy otherwise for them to be converted from their former religion. Having heard that there was a very spacious temple at Aulon, a district of Apamea, he repaired thither with a body of soldiers and gladiators. He stationed himself at a distance from the scene of conflict, beyond the reach of the arrows; for he was afflicted with the gout, and was unable to fight, to pursue, or to flee. Whilst the soldiers and gladiators were engaged in the assault against the temple, some pagans, discovering that he was alone, hastened to the place where he was separated from the combat; they arose suddenly and seized him, and burnt him alive. The perpetrators of this deed were not then known, but, in course of time, they were detected, and the sons of Marcellus determined upon avenging his death. The council of the province, however, prohibited them from executing this design, and declared that it was not just that the relatives or friends of Marcellus should seek to avenge his death; when they should rather return thanks to God for having accounted him worthy to die in such a cause.' Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd ser., vol. 2, p. 384.
Socrates, Historiæ Ecclesiasticæ, bk. 2. 17. 'When the Temple of Serapis was torn down and laid bare, there were found in it, engraven on stones, certain characters which they call hieroglyphics, having the forms of crosses. Both the Christians and pagans on seeing them, appropriated and applied them to their respective religions: for the Christians who affirm that the cross is the sign of Christ's saving passion, claimed this character as peculiarly theirs; but the pagans alleged that it might appertain to Christ and Serapis in common; 'for,' said they, 'it symbolizes one thing to Christians and another to heathens.' Whilst this point was controverted amongst them, some of the heathen converts to Christianity, who were conversant with these hieroglyphic characters, interpreted the form of a cross and said that it signifies 'Life to come.' This the Christians exultingly laid hold of, as decidedly favourable to their religion. But after other hieroglyphics had been deciphered containing a prediction that 'When the cross should appear,' for this was 'life to come,' 'the Temple of Serapis would be destroyed,' a very great number of the pagans embraced Christianity, and confessing their sins, were baptized. Such are the reports I have heard respecting the discovery of this symbol in form of a cross. But I cannot imagine that the Egyptian priests foreknew the things concerning Christ, when they engraved the figure of a cross. For if 'the advent' of our Saviour into the world 'was a mystery hid from ages and from generations,' as the apostle declares; and if the devil himself, the prince of wickedness, knew nothing of it his ministers, the Egyptian priests, are likely to have been still more ignorant of the matter; but Providence doubtless purposed that in the enquiry concerning this character, there should something take place analogous to what happened heretofore at the preaching of Paul. For he, made wise by the Divine Spirit, employed a similar method in relation to the Athenians, and brought over many of them to the faith, when on reading the inscription on one of their altars, he accommodated and applied it to his own discourse. Unless indeed any one should say, that the Word of God wrought in the Egyptian priests, as it did on Balaam and Caiaphas; for these men uttered prophecies of good things is spite of themselves. This will suffice on the subject.' Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd ser., vol. 2, p. 126.
Rufinus, Historiæ Ecclesiasticæ, bk. 2:26-28. ']

[246] [Denon, Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt in Company with Several Divisions of the French Army, pl. ?
Lundy, Monumental Christianity, fig. 183.]

[247] [Brand, Observations of Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, p. 359, 'Barber Signs.' 'I am better pleased with the subsequent explanation which I find in the Antiquarian Repertor: "The barber's pole has been the subject of many conjectures, some conceiving it to have originated from the word poll or head, with several other conceits as far-fetched and as unmeaning; but the true intention of that party-coloured staff was to show that the master of the shop practised surgery, and could breathe a vein as well as mow a beard: such a staff being to this day, by every village practitioner, put into the hand of a patient undergoing the operation of phlebotomy. The white band, which encompasses the staff, was meant to represent the fillet thus elegantly twined about it." In confirmation of this opinion the reader may be referred to the cut of the barber's shop in Comenii Orbis Pictus, where the patient under phlebotomy is represented with a pole or staff in his hand. And that this is a very ancient practice, appears from an illumination in a missal of the time of Edward the First, in the possession of Mr. Wild.']

[248] [Palma Di Cesnola, Cyprus, its Ancient Cities, Tombs, Temples. See note below.]

[249] [Monumental Christianity, p. 326. 'But here is an altogether new revelation of the Orante Venus from Cyprus. (Fig. 160.) Any one who doubts the existence of such Pagan crucifixes as are given in Chapter VII. of this work, may look closely at this figure. It is the most astonishing one I have ever seen. One arm has been broken off, but the other reveals a ligature or two which bind it to a piece of wood, dimly traced underneath. The figure is that of a woman, veiled, and with a cap indicative of high Asiatic origin. The folds of the drapery are precisely those of the majestic and placid-looking priest of Venus that stands in the Di Cesnola collection, holding a dove in one hand, and a sacrificial wine cup in the other. This figure, therefore, belongs to the same cultus. But what is its signification? In the absence of cotemporary literature, it is difficult to decide. If I may hazard a conjecture, I would call it the Crucifixion of the Great Mother herself.']

[250] [Inman, Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, vol. 1, fig. 92.]

[251] [Octavius, ch. 29. 'But you worship wooden gods, and so perhaps adore wooden crosses when they form part of your gods. After all, your ensigns and military standards are practically crosses, gilt and ornamented, and your trophies of victory are not only in the shape of a simple cross, but have something of the semblance of a man fixed upon them.' Brodribb's tr.]

[252] [Moor, Hindu Pantheon, pls. 69-75.]

[253] [Ibid., pl. 6. figs. 1 & 2.]

[254] [Mycenæ. Poss. fig. 523. My copy is poor.]

[255] [Copied into the present volume. See here.]

[256] [The Lake Regions of Central Africa, vol. 2, p. 352. 'Captain Burton's account from Central Africa is as follows. Disease being possession by a spirit or ghost, the 'mganga' or sorcerer has to expel it, the principal remedies being drumming, dancing, and drinking, till at last the spirit is enticed from the body of the patient into some inanimate article, technically called a 'keti' or stool for it. This may be an ornament, such as a peculiar bead or a leopard's claw, or it may be a nail or rag, which by being driven into or hung to a 'devil's tree' has the effect of laying the disease-spirit.' From Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. 2, p. 148.]

[257] [Apology, ch. 16. 'And yet how far does the Athenian Pallas differ from the stock of the cross, or the Pharian Ceres as she is put up uncarved to sale, a mere rough stake and piece of shapeless wood ! Every stake fixed in an upright position is a portion of the cross; we render our adoration, if you will have it so, to a god entire and complete. We have shown before that your deities are derived from shapes modelled from the cross. But you also worship victories, for in your trophies the cross is the heart of the trophy. The camp religion of the Romans is all through a worship of the standards, a setting the standards above all gods. Well, all those images decking out the standards are ornaments of crosses. All those hangings of your standards and banners are robes of crosses. I praise your zeal: you would not consecrate crosses unclothed and unadorned. Others, again, certainly with more information and greater verisimilitude, believe that the sun is our god.' ANCL, 11, 85.]

[258] [Num. 21:8-9. 'And the LORD said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live.
    And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived.'
Wis. 16:5-6. 'For when the terrible rage of wild beasts came upon thy people and they were being destroyed by the bites of writhing serpents, thy wrath did not continue to the end;
    They were troubled for a little while as a warning, and received a token of deliverance to remind them of thy law's command.' Rev'd version.]

[259] [Caylus, Recueil d'Antiquités Égyptiennes, Étrusques, Grecques, Romaines, etc, vol. 1, pl. 32.
Lundy, Monumental Christianity, fig. 188.]

[260] [Pædagogus, bk. 1. ch. 6. 'Even now, in fact, nurses call the first-poured drink of milk by the same name as that food—manna. Further, pregnant women, on becoming mothers, discharge milk. But the Lord Christ, the fruit of the Virgin, did not pronounce the breasts of women blessed, nor selected them to give nourishment; but when the kind and loving Father had rained down the Word, Himself became spiritual nourishment to the good. O mystic marvel! The universal Father is one, and one the universal Word; and the Holy Spirit is one and the same everywhere, and one is the only virgin mother. I love to call her the Church.' ANCL, 4, 142.]

[261] [Lundy, Monumental Christianity, fig. 63.]

[262] [Lundy, ibid., fig. 66.]

[263] [Lundy, ibid., fig. 61 and 72.]

[264] [Edited by the Rev. A. P. Moor, 1859. It does, however, appear in the re-issue, and also can be found in Inman's Ancient Faiths, vol. 1, p. 402, fig. 90.]

[265] [Pl. BB 2; Drummond, Oedipus Judaicus, pls. 6 and 7.]

[266] [Massey is here referring to the Revised Version of the Bible which was published around the same time he was writing this work.]

[267] [Maitland, The Church of the Catacombs, p. 203. 'The cross was occasionally added to the Trisagion, a custom which scandalised some persons in the fifth century. The heathen, it was said, would believe from it, that God had been crucified. A few heterodox Christians found in it a pretext for the opinion, that the second person of the Trinity was divided. The sculptor was accused of making a Quaternity, by introducing a suffering Son in addition to the Three Persons of the Trisagion.']

[268] [Commentary on the Timaeus, vol. 2, p. 112. 'Concerning this section however, and the two lengths and circles, it is worth while to consider, what they must be said to be. For the divine Iamblichus soars on high, and solicitously investigates invisible natures, viz. the one soul, and the two souls that proceed from it.' Taylor's tr. See also note 287 below.]

[269] [Rit. ch. 17. 'I am the Soul in his two halves. Let him explain it. Osiris goes into Tattu, he binds the soul of the Sun there. One and the other are united. He is transformed into his soul from his two halves, who are the sustainer of his father, and Horus who dwells in the shrine; or, the soul in his two halves is the soul of the Sun and the soul of Osiris, the soul of Shu, the soul of Tefnu, the souls who belong to Tattu.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf.]

[270] [Cited in Didron, Christian Iconography, vol. 1, p. 336. 'St. John Damascenus (Oratio iii., De Imaginibus) literally repeats the 82nd canon of this Council (Quini-Sextum) or in Trullo, which prohibits the representation of the Lamb. The council wished to substitute history entirely for symbolism; but the use of the symbolic figure was still uninterruptedly persisted in, particularly amongst us, even side by side with the historic.']

[271] [Durandus, Rationale Diuinorum Officiorum. bk. 1, ch. 3; De Consecratio. Distinct. 3, ch. 6. '"Sciendum autem est quod Salvatoris imago tribus modis convenientius in ecclesia depingitur, videlicet: aut residens in throno, aut pendens in crucis patibulo, aut ut residens in matris gremio. Quia vero Johannes Baptista Christum digito demonstravit dicens: 'Ecce agnus Dei,' ideo quidam dessignebant Christum sub specie agni. Quia vero tamen umbra transivit, et Christus verus est homo, dicit Adrianus papa (De Consecratio. Distinct, iii., cap. 6.) quod ipsum, in forma humana depingere debemus. Non enim agnus Dei in cruce principaliter depingi debet ; sed, nomine depicto, non obest agnum in parte inferiori vel posteriori depingi, cum ipse sit verus agnus qui tollit peccata mundi. His quidem et aliis diversis modis Salvatoris imago depingitur propter diversas significationes." (G. Durandus, Rat. Div. Off., lib. i. cap. 3.) Durandus, as has been already said, takes all his examples from Italian art, or rather from Italian books. The French liturgist lived surrounded by the sculptors and painters, by whom our most celebrated cathedrals were then filled with statues and images, and yet he had never seen either images or statues. He closed his eyes to monumental art in his own country; he never studied it, except by reading, often without understanding them, the writings of foreign authors. Amongst us, we do not at the same time depict Jesus on the cross, and the Lamb at the foot of the cross; but in Italy, from the fourth to the fifth century, the cross was drawn, probably without any figure of Christ, but with the Divine Lamb at the foot. In fact, the following lines appear in the works of St. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in the middle of the twelfth Epistle, addressed by Paulinus to Sulpicius Severus:
    "Sub cruce sanguinea niveo stat Christus in agno,
    Agnus ut innocua injusto datus hostia leto."' Cited in Didron, Christian Iconography, vol. 1, p. 337.
'Besides this, in the eastern as well as in the western Church, it has always been customary to chant during the service of the mass; "Lamb of God that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us." The Sacred Lamb has constantly been invoked in prayer, and represented in sculpture and painting, without any regard being paid to the Council Quini-Sextum. Lastly, in the thirteenth century, even at a period when history strove to gain the ascendancy over allegory, a method was discovered by means of which, the person of Christ and his symbol, were both represented at the same time. Before the thirteenth century, the symbol had the preference; after this, a prejudice arose in favour of reality: But in the time of Gulielmus Durandus, the happy medium was almost attained; the Lamb, although holding a secondary place, was not then too completely sacrificed to the person of Christ. The following quotation from Durandus will form a complement to the decision of the council. "Because John the Baptist pointed to him, saying, 'Behold the Lamb of God;' therefore some represented Christ under the form of a lamb; 'But forasmuch as the shadow hath passed away, and that Christ is very man; therefore,' saith Pope Adrian, 'he ought to be represented in the form of a man.'"' Cited in Didron, ibid., vol. 1, p. 336.]

[272] [Discours sur les Types Imitatifs qui Constituent l'Art du Christianisme, pp. 17-8.]

[273] [Apostolic Constitutions, bk. 8. Unable to trace in this book.]

[274] [De Ecclesiasticis Sacramentis, ac Officiis, et Præcipuis per annum festis, sermones XXI, Micrologus de Observation, c. 14.]

[275] [Bower, History of the Popes, vol. 1, p. 7. 'The title of apostolic see, common to many, was, in process of time, by the ambition of the Bishops of Rome, appropriated to their own. They had, as they thought, till the year 1662, a pregnant proof not only of St. Peter's erecting their chair, but of his sitting in it himself; for till that year, the very chair, on which they believed, or would make others believe, he had sat, was shown and exposed to public adoration on the 18th of January, the festival of the said chair. But while it was cleaning, in order to be set up in some conspicuous place of the Vatican, the Twelve Labours of Hercules unluckily appeared engraved on it. Our worship however, says Giaconno Bartolini, who was present at this discovery, and relates it, was not misplaced, since it was not to the wood we paid it; but to the prince of the apostles, St. Peter. An author of no mean character, unwilling to give up the holy chair, even after this discovery, as having a place and a peculiar solemnity among the other saints, has attempted to explain the labours of Hercules in a mystical sense, as emblems representing the future exploits of the popes. But the ridiculous and distorted conceits of that writer are not worthy our notice, though by Clement X. they were judged not unworthy of a reward. But to return to our subject; it may be inuired. If St. Peter was Bishop of Rome, who placed him in that see? Did our Lord appoint him] Did the apostles name him? Did the people choose him? Did he assume it himself? To these queries no answers have been yet given, but such as are so ridiculously weak, that it is not worth my while to relate them, nor the reader's to hear them. Bellarmine, in one place, positively affirms, that "God commanded St. Peter to fix his see at Rome;" but elsewhere contents himself with saying, "It is not improbable that God commanded St. Peter to fix his see at Rome." If it is no more than not improbable, it is uncertain; it may be a mere conjecture, a dream.']

[276] [King, Early Christian Numismatics, p. 13.]

[277] [Munter, Sinnbilder und Kunstvortellungen der Alten Christen, vol. 1, p. 33.
Stockbauer, Der christliche Kirkenbau in den ersten Sechs Jahrhunderten (?), pp. 86-7.]

[278] [King, Early Christian Numismatics, p. 12. 'I would like now to make some remarks upon the different symbols which have been passed in review in describing the coins of Constantine the Great, Licinius, and the three Caesars, Crispus, Constantinus Junior, and Licinius Junior—symbols which we shall again meet with upon other coins. I will begin by acknowledging that although these symbols, as far as regards their material form, were not invented by the Christians, they nevertheless received at this time a new signification, and which became their proper one; and everybody agrees in giving them this peculiar signification when they occur in the coinage of Constantine.']

[279] [Inman, Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, vol. 1, p. 403. I find it difficult to see the connection to this figure, but Inman supposes there is an image of a lingam-yoni on his head. See fig. 90.]

[280] [Irenaeus, Against Heresies, bk. 1, 2:1. 'They proceed to tell us that the Propator of their scheme was known only to Monogenes, who sprang from him; in other words, only to Nous, while to all the others he was invisible and incomprehensible. And, according to them, Nous alone took pleasure in contemplating the Father, and exulted in considering his immeasurable greatness; while he also meditated how he might communicate to the rest of the Æons the greatness of the Father, revealing to them how vast and mighty he was, and how he was without beginning,—beyond comprehension, and altogether incapable of being seen. But, in accordance with the will of the Father, Sige restrained him, because it was his design to lead them all to an acquaintance with the aforesaid Propator, and to create within them a desire of investigating his nature. In like manner, the rest of the Æons also, in a kind of quiet way, had a wish to behold the Author of their being, and to contemplate that First Cause which had no beginning.' ANCL, 5.]

[281] [Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, ch. 68.]

[282] [Maitland, Church of the Catacombs, pp. 66-76. 'Not only the importance attached to burial, but also the feeling of reverence for the dead, afterwards became excessive. Sepulchres and remains, even in the fourth century, formed an object of veneration, and were almost considered a means of grace. "It is scarcely known," observes Prudentius about the year 390, "how full Rome is of buried saints: how richly the metropolitan soil abounds in holy sepulchres. But we who are not so blessed, and cannot behold around us the traces of blood, nevertheless look up from afar unto heaven." It had been well for Christendom, if the ashes of the martyrs had been always left in that obscurity, to which the primitive Church thought proper to consign them.
    During the long period of tranquillity which occurred between the sixth and seventh persecutions, Callistus greatly enlarged and improved the Sebastian catacombs, from which circumstance they were called the cemetery of Callistus. The entrance to them is through the Basilica of St. Sebastian on the Appian way, about two miles beyond the gate of the city. Notwithstanding the little credence usually given to the story of Sebastian, there seems no reason for doubting that part of it which relates to the manner of his death. It is important in such cases to distinguish between the legend of antiquity, and the story as embellished by the fervid imagination of the painters' age. Artists have vied with one another in representing the youthful martyr in a state of seraphic abstraction: the half-draped figure pierced with arrows, the closing eyes already fixed on heavenly glories, and the face lighted up with unearthly smiles, or darkening with the shadow of death, offered capabilities which Guido and the Caracci cannot be accused of having neglected. From the habit of adding to the picture angels with crowns and palms, and of introducing some glaring anachronism, such as the presence of the Virgin Mary, or John the Baptist, Ave are often led to consider the whole as a fable; yet, on inspecting the catacombs, the existence of Sebastian is found to rest on good evidence. A small cell has been preserved as the chapel built over the grave of the martyr; and above this have been accumulated all the honours which can be paid to a saint and a hero. Perpendicularly above the grave stands the high altar of the Basilica, with a marble representation of the dead saint, the size of life. Below ground is a beautiful bust by Bernini; and the fine church over the entrance, as well as the catacomb itself, perpetuate the name of Sebastian. According to the Acts of his martyrdom, this young officer was shot to death by arrows, but was miraculously restored to life and health. Not content with the glory of one martyrdom, he presented himself to the authorities; and after a second execution, his body was concealed in a sewer and hung upon a hook that it might not escape again. He contrived, however, to reveal the secret to a woman by a dream, in consequence of which he was buried in the catacomb now called after him.
    The internal management of the cemeteries now demands our attention.
    "The first order among the clergy," says Jerome, "is that of the Fossors, who, after the manner of holy Tobit, are employed in burying the dead." Besides the epitaphs proper to fossors, there are many other inscriptions which allude to them as having sold the tomb to the deceased or his friends. Their importance, as well as the nature of the duties entrusted to them, will be more obvious when we have compared the funeral regulations of the Pagans with those of the Christians.
    Let us take, as an illustration of the former, this inscription (copied from a MS. collection in Rome).

To the Divine Manes. Quintus Meiolus, freed-man of Augustus, made this cepotaph for himself alone. Quinta Vitalis, my daughter, shall possess it without controversy.
    The word cepotaph is derived from the Greek [Greek], a tomb in a garden. As cinerary urns occupied little space, and were productive of no inconvenience to the neighbourhood, the ashes of the dead were generally deposited in the garden or court-yard of the house, in a small chamber built for that purpose. The columbaria, now existing in Rome, show this custom on a larger scale. One of them, very lately discovered, is capable of containing three hundred urns. The niches for these, disposed round the walls in horizontal rows, give the chamber the appearance of a dove-cote, whence the name columbarium. In the sepulchre of the Abucci, described by Sponius, the urns are numbered. One of the inscriptions is here copied:
    L · ABVCCIVS HERMES IN HOC
    ORDINE AB IMO AD SVMMVM
    COLVMBARIA IX OLLAE XIIX
    SIBI POSTERIS QVE SVIS
Lucius Abuccius Hermes, in this row, No. 9 from the bottom of the columbarium upwards; urn No. 18. For himself and his descendants. (Sponii Miscellanea Erud. Antiquitatis).
    A few forms of inscription were recognised as regular bequests of this sort of property: among them are; "et posteris suis"—"haeredes hoc monumentum sequitur"—"liberis libertabusque suis"—as well as their initials e. p. s.—h. h. m. s.—1. 1. q. s., and others. But with the Christians, who required larger space and a more secluded situation for the decomposition of an entire body, a different system was necessarily adopted. The catacombs were placed under the management of a number of fossors, probably sand-diggers by trade, who, besides excavating graves and squaring the galleries, served also as guides. Their power of disposing of the graves is well exemplified in the following Christian inscription, which the author copied literatim from a small collection on the walls of the Capitol.
    EMPTVM LOCUM A BARTEMISTVM
    VISOMVM HOC EST ET PRETIVM
    DATVM A FOSSORI HILARO ID EST
   
    PRESENTIA SEVERI FOSS ET LAVRENT
The place bought by Bartemistus, that is, a bisomum; and the price paid to the fossor Hilarus, the sum of fourteen hundred folles (amounting to It. 2s. Id.), in the presence of the fossors Severus and Lawrence.
    To estimate better the value of such a sum as 1½. 25. Id. in those times, we may compare with this epitaph one contained in Wordsworth's Pompeian Inscriptions, in which the sum of H.S.LX.Y, nine shillings and sixpence, is offered for the recovery of a lost wine vessel. The thirty pieces of silver received by Judas amounted to 3. 0s. 6d.
    The author has not met with any other inscription, recording the price of a tomb: what makes this epitaph of Bartemistus the more valuable on the score of authenticity, is the circumstance that though the transaction is clearly stated, the sum is expressed in a very unusual manner, the follis being a Latin version of the Greek [Greek], probably introduced in the time of the later Caesars.
    Gruter has published a Pagan inscription, which, though not setting a price upon the tomb, imposes a fine upon the violator of it. "If any one shall wish to sell or give away this sepulchre or monument with the house (attached), after my death, or to lay therein another body, he shall pay to the Pontifex Maximus the fine of twenty sesterces:" about three shillings.
    The use of the preposition a before the dative case, in some of the preceding epitaphs, is remarkable: it seems to indicate an approximation to the Italian language, of which it is an established element.
   
Jovinus bought himself a bisomum from Victorinus and Exuperus his colleague. In Christ.
    To this inscription, the term epitaph can scarcely be applied; it is rather a legal conveyance of a portion of the cemetery.
    Some inscriptions appear to have been executed in part at the time of the purchase, and concluded after the burial. There is one of this character in the Lapidarian Gallery.
    HIC REQIECET
    SAMSO IN BISO
    MVM ET VCTORV
    SE VIVA VXOREIVS
Here rests Samso in a bisomum, and Victoria his wife, she being alive.
We may infer from this some such family history as the following: Samso, the husband of Victoria, not having provided himself with a tomb, was left to the care of his widow for burial. She then purchased a bisomum, and having interred her husband, set up a stone to record that there rested Samso; adding in a bisomum, to reserve a place for herself. After her death the inscription was completed; the insertion of the words herself being alive, showing that as a respectable woman she had, during her lifetime, provided for her burial.
    In the annexed, a Roman Christian is exhibited as selecting the site of his future sepulchre.
   
Read—In Christo. Martyrius vixit annos plus minus xci. elexit domum vivus, in pace. (Lap. Gallery.)
    In Christ. Martyrius lived ninety-one years, more or less. He chose a home during his life-time. In peace.
    There existed formerly on the walls of the catacombs many paintings, representing individuals of the lowest class, employed in excavating an over-hanging rock, with a lamp suspended from the summit. One of these paintings, copied in the Roma Sotteranea, has the words Fossor Trofimus added. A better executed drawing was found by Boldetti, in the cemetery of Callistus.
    The inscription is "Diogenes the Fossor, buried in peace on the eighth before the kalends of October."
    On either side is seen a dove with an olive branch, the common emblem of Christian peace. The pick-axe and lamp together plainly designate the subterranean excavator while the spike by which the lamp is suspended from the rock, the cutting instruments and compasses used for marking out the graves, and the chapel lined with tombs among which the fossor stands, mark as distinctly the whole routine of his occupation, as the cross on his dress, his Christian profession. The painting is on a retiring part of the wall, and beneath it is the opening of a grave.
    From the instruments represented in this valuable painting, as well as from the testimony of authors, we conclude that the fossors were employed to excavate and adorn parts of the catacombs. A great portion of their work must have been connected with the chapels, which were very numerous, and afterwards became elaborate in their details. This rude attempt of a contemporary artist to represent the occupation of a poor Christian, employed in burying in secret the deceased members of a community, to whom no place on the face of the earth was granted for their long home, suggests some serious reflections on the change which Christendom has since undergone. Could we imagine the humble Diogenes, whom we see engaged in his melancholy task, to look out from the entrance to the crypt, and behold, in their present splendour, the domes and palaces of Christian Rome; to see the cross which he could only wear in secret on his coarse woollen tunic; from every pinnacle of the eternal city; how would he hail the arrival of a promised millennium, and confidently infer the abolition of idolatrous service! Glowing with the zeal of the Cyprianic age, he hastes to the nearest temple, to give thanks for the marvellous change: he stops short at the threshold, for by a strange mistake he has encountered incense and images and the purple-bearing train of the Pontifex Maximus. What remains for him, but to wander solitary beside the desolate Tiber, by those "waters of Babylon to sit down and weep," while he remembers his ancient Sion?
    Besides the cemetery of Callistus, those of SS. Agnes, Lawrence, Saturninus and Thraso, Marcellinus and Peter, and several others, have obtained celebrity. There is also a cemetery underneath the Basilica of St. Peter, on the Vatican hill; but it has been so overloaded with the productions of after ages, that little trace of the earlier centuries is left. Most of its present contents were deposited there when the new church of St. Peter's was built.'
Ibid., p. 10. 'In the year 1841, the writer applied for permission "to copy some of the inscriptions contained in the Lapidarian Gallery," and a licence" to make some memoranda in drawing, in that part of the Museum was granted. About that time, a misunderstanding is reported to have arisen between the Jesuits and the officers of the Vatican; in consequence of which the former were refused permission to copy the inscriptions in question for their forthcoming work on the Christian Arts. An application was also made by them to the Custode of the Gallery, in order to prevent the use of its contents by a foreigner, perhaps a Protestant. On the last day of the month for which the author's licence was available, he was officially informed that his permission did not extend to the inscriptions, but only to a few blocks of sculpture scattered up and down the gallery. This communication was accompanied by a demand that the copies already mad should be given up, with which the author refused to comply; and with the understanding that no more inscriptions should be copied, and that they should not be published in Rome, the matter was allowed to drop.']

[283] [See zodiacs; also Didron, Christian Iconography, vol. 1, fig. 49.]

[284] [Didron, ibid., vol. 1, fig. 76.]

[285] [Timaeus, 36a. 'Hence he then cut the whole of this composition according to length, and produced two from one; and adapted middle to middle, like the form of the letter X.' Taylor's tr.]

[286] [Proclus, Commentary on the Timaeus, vol. 2, p. 110. 'Two circles therefore, will be formed, of which one will be interior, but the other exterior, and they will be oblique to each other. One of these likewise, is called the circle of the same, but the other, the circle of the different. And the one indeed, subsists according to the equinoctial circle, but the other, according to the zodiac. For the whole circle of the different revolves about the zodiac, but that of the same about the equinoctial. Hence, we conceive that the right lines ought not to be applied to each other at right angles, but like the letter X as Plato says, so as to cause the angles to be equal only at the summit, but those on each side, and the successive angles, to be unequal. For the equinoctial circle does not cut the zodiac at right angles. Such therefore, in short, is the mathematical discussion of the figure of the soul.' Taylor's tr.]

[287] [Ibid., vol. 2, p. 112. 'Concerning this section however, and the two lengths and circles, it is worth while to consider, what they must be said to be. For the divine Iamblichus soars on high, and solicitously investigates invisible natures, viz. the one soul, and the two souls that proceed from it.' See also note 268 above.]

[288] [Rit. ch. 17. Cf. Renouf.]

[289] [First Apology, ch. 60. 'And the physiological discussion concerning the Son of God in the Timaeus of Plato where he says, "He placed him crosswise in the universe," he borrowed in like manner from Moses; for in the writings of Moses it is related how at that time, when the Israelites went out of Egypt and were in the wilderness, they fell in with poisonous beasts, both vipers and asps, and every kind of serpent, which slew the people; and that Moses, by the inspiration and influence of God, took brass, and made it into the figure of a cross, and set it in the holy tabernacle, and said to the people, "If ye look to this figure, and believe, ye shall be saved thereby." And when this was done, it is recorded that the serpents died, and it is handed down that the people thus escaped death. Which things Plato reading, and not accurately understanding, and not apprehending that it was the figure of the cross, but taking it to be a placing crosswise, he said that the power next to the first God was placed crosswise in the universe.' ANCL, 2, 58.]

[290] [Cratylus. 'There may, at first sight, appear to be some irreverence in calling him the son of Cronos, who is a proverb for stupidity; but the meaning is that Zeus himself is the son of a mighty intellect; Kronos, quasi koros, not in the sense of a youth, but quasi to katharon kai akeraton tou nou—the pure and garnished mind, which in turn is begotten of Uranus, who is so called apo tou oran ta ano, from looking upwards; which, as philosophers say, is the way to have a pure mind.' Jowett's tr.]

[291] [Hefele, Conciliengeschichte. vol. 3, p. 737.
Poss. in Eng. tr.,  vol. 2, p. 217. 'The manner in which the friends of Athanasius and of the Mycene faith, both before and during their exile, were ill-treated, persecuted, and tormented in all ways, is a shocking testimony to the intolerance of heresy where it predominates, and sufficiently explains the bitter expressions, certainly exceeding all bounds, applied to the Emperor Constantius, not only by the naturally hasty Lucifer, but also by Athanasius and Hilary. They repeatedly call him the forerunner of Antichrist, even Antichrist himself, and compare him to Herod, Pharaoh, Saul, and Ahab. Lucifer especially calls him an immanis fera and an immanis lestia, possessing only the form and features of a man.'
Or poss. vol. 5, p. 276. 'Theophanes (p. 625 sqq.) relates that, in the year 721 (according to his reckoning = the thirteenth regnal year of Leo, beginning March 25, 729), the Emperor summoned the patriarch to him, and gave him first very friendly words. Germanus replied: "An ancient prophecy says that certainly an assault on images will be made, but not in your reign." "Under what reign, then?" asked the Emperor. "Under Conon." "I myself," said the Emperor, "in baptism received the name of Conon." Thereupon the patriarch: "Far be it from you, my lord, that under your government this evil should come to pass. For he who does this is a forerunner of antichrist." The tyrant, embittered by this, sought in the words of the patriarch material for a charge of lese-majesty, in order that he might depose him the more decently. A helper in this he found in Anastasius, the pupil and companion of the patriarch, who wished to thrust him from his see.']

[292] [Origen, Against Celsus, bk. 1:39. Unable to trace in this work or any other by Origen.]

[293] [Maspero, 'Instructions of Amenemhat I,' RP, 2, 9. See p. 13. ]

[294] [Rit. ch. 135. 'Save thou the Osiris from the attack made against him at that crossing. His heart fails. Give thou the Osiris support against Gods, Spirits, and the dead.' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf.]

[295] [Rit. ch. 133. 'He is like the Sun, distributing the boatmen to serve Nuher. He has not been spoken of, been perceived, or heard in the mystical house of Cross-head [or Fire-face].' Birch's tr. Cf. Renouf.]

[296] [Source.]

[297] [Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, vol. 1, App. 3, 'The Samaritan Passover,' pp. 463-4. 'The liver was carefully put back. Long poles were brought, on which the animals were spitted; near the bottom of each pole was a transverse peg or stick, to prevent the body from slipping off. As no part of the body is transfixed by this cross stake as, indeed, the body hardly impinges on it at all there is at present but a very slight resemblance to a crucifixion. But it is possible that in earlier times the legs of the animal may have been attached to the transverse beam. So at least the Jewish rite is described by Justin Martyr: The Paschal lamb, that is to be roasted, is roasted in a form like to that of the Cross. For one spit is thrust through the animal from head to tail, and another through its breast, to which its forefeet are attached. l He naturally saw in it a likeness of the Crucifixion.' (1887 ed.)]

[298] [Monasticon Anglicanum.]

[299] [Didron, Christian Iconography, vol. 1, fig. 96.]

[300] [King, Early Christian Numismatics, p. 13. 'Similarly the monogram formed out of the I and X is figured on the denarius of L. Lentulus, flamen of Mars, with the portrait of Julius Csesar, in which situation it represents the star of Venus.']

[301] [Source.]

[302] [Lundy, Monumental Christianity, fig. 45.
Moor, Hindu Pantheon, pl. 83.]

[303] [Rev. 17:9. 'And here is the mind which hath wisdom. The seven heads are seven mountains, on which the woman sitteth.']

[304] ['The old Popish ceremony of Creepinge to the Crosse on Good Friday, is given, from an ancient book of the Ceremonial of the Kings of England, in the Notes to the Northumberland Household Book. The usher was to lay a carpet for the Kinge to "creepe to the crosse upon." The Queen and her Ladies were also to creepe to the Crosse. In an original Proclamation, black letter, dated 26th February, 30 Henry VIII, in the first volume of a Collection of Proclamations in the Archives of the Society of Antiquaries of London, p. 138, we read: "On Good Friday it shall be declared howe creepyng of the Crosse signifyeth an humblynge of ourselfe to Christe before the Crosse, and the kyssynge of it a memorie of our redemption made upon the Crosse."
    In a Short Description of Antichrist, the author notes the Popish custom of "Creepinge to the Crosse with egges and apples." "Dispelinge with a white rodde" immediately fellows; though I know not whether it was upon the same day. "To holde forth the Crosse for egges on Good Friday" occurs among the Roman Catholic customs censured by John Bale, in his Declaration of Bonner's Articles, 1554, as is "to creape to the Crosse on Good Friday featly." From Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, p. 152.]

[305] [Strype, Memorials of the Most Revered Father in God, Thomas Cranmer, vol. 1, p. 193. 'And because creeping to the cross was a greater abuse than any of the other, (for there the people said, Crucem tuam adoramus, Domine: and the ordinal saith, Procedant clerici ad crucem adorandum nudis pedibus: and it followeth in the said ordinal, Ponatur crux ante aliquod altare, ubi a populo adoretur: which by the Bishop's book, intituled, A necessary Instruction, is against the second commandment,) therefore he desired of the King, that the creeping to the cross might also cease hereafter.']

[306] [Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities. 'Good Friday.' See note 304 above.]

[307] [Martigny, Dictionnaire des Antiquities Chrétiennes, p. 190.]

[308] [Didron, Christian Iconography, vol. 1, p. 397. 'Finally, Christ, whose comprehensive charity embraces the universe, the ancient world as well as the future, from the creation down to the end of time, Christ, by whom patriarchs and apostles, prophets and saints are redeemed, the first man as well as the last, truly deserved that the cross on which his Greek letters IXOTC, forming the celebrated word on which we have already dwelt so long. If Gori's reading be correct, this fact is of the highest importance. I regret extremely not having myself seen that curious monument. I requested M. Abbe Lacroix, the clerc-national and historical correspondent at Rome, to favour me with information respecting this mosaic. M. Lacroix, who has made the Church of St. Apollinaire in Classe, in which that mosaic is preserved, an object of especial study, has taken a most careful and exact copy of the cross. He informs me that the word is really IXOTC, as Gori asserts. This fact is of great moment in determining the question whether Christ were actually symbolised by the fish or not. M. Lacroix has also sent me a drawing of a monument, recently discovered by himself, on the hill of the Vatican behind St. Peter's; it is a sepulchral marble, belonging to the earliest Christian era. Above two fishes, which are affronted, or looking towards each other, is inscribed "[Greek]' that is to say, "[Greek]," "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour of the living." After such facts as these, which completely set the question at rest, we are compelled to yield, and to acknowledge that the fish has most decidedly been employed as a figure, if not a symbol of Christ. M. Lacroix has counted 99 stars in the field of the cross of Ravenna; he thinks that that number may be intended to refer to the 99 just persons, in relation to whom there is less joy in Paradise than at the conversion of a single sinner. This interpretation could not, however, be adopted without some hesitation. The design in our possession contains 21 stars only; but copyists are seldom correct.' See fig. 107.]

[309] [Vossius, Origine ac Progressu Idololatriæ, bk. 1, ch. 23, p. 89. 'Latium Latinus (the Roman form of the Greek Lateinos), and Lateo, "to lie hid," all alike come from the Chaldee "Lat," which has the same meaning. The name "Lat," or the hidden one, had evidently been given, as well as Saturn, to the Great Babylonian god. This is evident from the name of the fish Latus, which was worshipped along with the Egyptian Minerva, in the city of Latopolis in Egypt, now Esneh (WILKINSON, vol. iv. p. 284, and vol. v. p. 253), that fish Latus evidently just being another name for the fish-god Dagon. We have seen that Ichthys, or the Fish, was one of the names of Bacchus; and the Assyrian goddess Atergatis, with her son Ichthys is said to have been cast into the lake of Ascalon.' From Hislop, The Two Babylons, p. 270.]

[310] ['Now, Jerome calls Dagon, the well-known Fish-god, Piscem moeroris (BRYANT, vol. iii. p. 179), "the fish of sorrow," which goes far to identify that Fish-god with Bacchus, the "Lamented one;" and the identification is complete when Hesychius tells us that some called Bacchus Ichthys, or "The fish" (sub voce "Bacchos," p. 179).' From Hislop, The Two Babylons, p. 114.]

[311] [Gen. 2:10-14. 'And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads.
    The name of the first is Pison: that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold;
    And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone.
    And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.
    And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.']

[312] [Zodiac in present vol.
Bosio, Roma Sotteranea, p. 505.
Lundy, Monumental Christianity, figs. 53 & 55.]

[313] [Origin of all Religious Worship. See p. 253.]

[314] [No. 231, Gnostic seals in the British Museum.]

[315] [Source.]

[316] [Log of Lord Colin Campbell.]